tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-88755373940201812192024-02-20T19:04:11.358-08:00Imaji Tak BertepiSASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.comBlogger124125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-12002794360540586762018-08-02T01:47:00.001-07:002018-08-02T01:57:30.424-07:00TUAN GURU BAJANG (TGB) ON THE RIGHT TRACK !!...............?<span class="fullpost">
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<span class="fullpost"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMGkAbf47x_4xIDs2UEZOv9LgdOc2hFT5vgBY2QK_FujJjiI92Yrmi9s62D2Y8CitqWgHVIWnTUEe8BmOPfH4hcBm6czstytpNgwJ9f_3lnOag236b2VMa7D6qgil6GKqn5mEp-ZapzRI/s1600/Screen+Shot+2018-08-02+at+4.37.54+PM.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="1280" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMGkAbf47x_4xIDs2UEZOv9LgdOc2hFT5vgBY2QK_FujJjiI92Yrmi9s62D2Y8CitqWgHVIWnTUEe8BmOPfH4hcBm6czstytpNgwJ9f_3lnOag236b2VMa7D6qgil6GKqn5mEp-ZapzRI/s320/Screen+Shot+2018-08-02+at+4.37.54+PM.png" width="320" /></a></span></div>
Beberapa tulisan saya sebelumnya telah membicarakan tentang TGB. Dari membicarakan pandangan orang luar Lombok atas makna Bajang secara semantik hingga isu kata “tiko” yang saya tulis dari sudut pandang pragmatik. Tulisan saya kali ini ingin berbicara TGB on the right track tanda seru dan tanya. Pertanyaan utamanya adalah apakah TGB on the right track? Dari pertanyaan ini nanti kita bisa menemukan sebuah konseptualisasi bagaimana melihat TGB sebagai orang Sasak dan juga anak bangsa yang memiliki hak yang sama dengan anak bangsa lainnya untuk berdikari dan bersuara. Walaupun beliau dilahirkan pada bangsa sasak, tapi TGB sejatinya juga milik Indonesia. Hanya saja TGB salah Sasak mengandung (kata Dr. Salman Al-Farisi Dosen senior UPSI Malaysia).
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Ditengah gaya kepemimpinan TGB yang selalu menciptakan sense of belonging rasa memiliki dan saling percaya dan memotivasi atau dalam bahasa Warren Bennis, gaya kepemimpinan affiliative. Walau ada sebagian berpendapat bahwa gaya kepemimpinan yang dibutuhkan sekarang adalah gaya movement atau pendobrak yang melakukan gerakan-gerakan besar, gaya retorik yang hebat walau kadang kontroversial. Tetapi TGB berbeda memandang hal ini, bagi TGB cara-cara kontroversial itu adalah cara lama dan sekarang sudah tidak relevan lagi, karena sejatinya semua anak bangsa terus mengikuti perkembangan global/ melek IT dan harus didekati dengan pendekatan soft approach. Don Tapscott menyebutnya generasi net (net generation). Jika dulu pendekatannya analog, harus dengan mengangkat senjata berperang melawan penjajahan, sekarang tidak adalagi penjajahan secara fisik, hanya saja yang marak sekarang tirani ideologi yang memungkinkan kita tidak bisa berseberangan pandangan lalu darah di halalkan tidak ubahnya zaman halal lepang (Sasak term artinya, zaman kodok menjadi halal).
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Hipotesa bersama sahabat Indonesia diaspora ketika berdiskusi masalah bangsa melihat bahwa kegaduhan yang menari-nari hari ini di Indonesia murni berdasarkan kepentingan politik. Dengan menjadikan simbol-simbol agama sebagai manuver politik, mengkultuskan tokoh agama yang sesuai kepentingan politik. Ketika salah seorang menemukan ijtihadnya dan berbeda pandangan dan kepentingan politik, saat itu tokoh tersebut tak lagi dianggap pada jalan yang benar bahkan konon tidak mendapatkan hidayah maka tokoh itu dengan bersegera diabaikan. Dan hipotesa tersebut terbukti melalui sikap TGB bahwa puja-memuji hanya berdasarkan kepentingan bukan atas nama akal sehat, “anda sehat” (kata sahabat saya Mastur Sansoka salah seorang dosen di Lombok). Begitu juga sebaliknya pemikiran anti NKRI, anti Kbinekaan dan lain sebagainya yang terlempar tersemat pada kubu yang berseberangan. TGB hadir tidak ingin diantara dua konstelasi pembenaran tersebut, TGB hanya ingin menempatkan dirinya sebagai penyeimbang sosial (social equilibirium) ditengah-tengah ketidakberimbangan ini tetapi tentu keberimbangan bukan berarti tidak ada pilihan, karena punya sikap politik dan tidak punya sikap politik bukan berarti selalu tidak objektif, dan subjektif, tetapi bisa saja mereka yang apatis pada sikap politik ia sesungguhnya sedang bermain pada tingkat subjektivitasnya. TGB sebagai Gubernur termuda dua periode, hafizun Quran adalah sebuah entitas keperibadian yang lengkap. Berbicara seadanya, membalas sumpah serapah dengan senyum dan berhuznuzon adalah sikap TGB sebagai penyeimbang. Lantas masyarakat tercengang dan sadar bahwa polarisasi yang sangat masif hari ini bukan memperjuangkan agama tapi hanya memperjuangkan birahi politik.
Kita harus open minded pada realita politik Indonesia yang biurlantur/oregade (ribut) dengan berbagai isu, sesungguhnya muaranya dari kepentingan dan telah menyulap kata-kata menjadi begitu liar yang keluar dari makom denotasinya, sehingga membersitkan konotasi-konotasi liar dan menjadi tontonan beberapa tahun terakhir ini dan masih menabuh genderangnya dimana-mana. Ditengah berbagai isu yang kontroversial tersebut, dan sengitnya kepentingan politik, nama TGB muncul tiba-tiba mendukung pertahana bapak Jokowi untuk bertarung dalam pilpres 2019. Dan tentu banyak yang gagap karena keputusan TGB yang diluar dugaan sebagian orang. Ada juga sebagian kocar-kacir karena selama ini TGB dijadikan sebagai kuda pacunya dan sekarang sudah tidak jinak lagi. Yang dulu memuja-muji kini sebaliknya. Dalam ruang seperti itu, tampak bahwa TGB hadir melawan kemapanan pemujanya dan orang yang mengelu-elukannya. Berbalik arus bah air bandang yang datang menyapu dan meluluh lantakkan kesonggongan. TGB telah menunjukkan dirinya memiliki kemapanan berpoitik dan tidak tergerus oleh koor dan apologi pemujanya.
TGB memang ngoncer (mulai kelihatan) jadi pembicaraan nasional, terpampang namanya pada headline beberapa koran akbar dan sering di undang TV swasta ternama belakangan ini. Banyak yang tercengang melihat ketendehan atau kesantunan dan budi bahasa TGB yang menjadi magnet bagi mereka yang baru kenal. Ketendehan atau kesantunan yang beliau tunjukkan adalah kesantunan orang sasak yang selalu ramah dan tak cepat lupa terhadap budi baik orang, bahkan sikap orang sasak yang menahan lidahnya sendiri untuk kebaikan orang lain dan menahan diri mencibiri sesuatu yang ia tak suka demi menyelamatkan muka orang (face saving dalam teorinya Brown dan Levinson yang dipinjam dari Goffman). Begitulah cara orang Sasak menjaga keseimbangan dengan ketendehan. Motivasi ketendehan tersebut bagi manusia Sasak adalah kenderaan untuk penyelenggaraan keseimbangan sosial dan sebagai bentuk dukungan interpersonal untuk mengelakkan konfrontasi, meminjam bahasanya Prof. Mahyuni, menjadikan ketendehan sebagai gerakan sosial pembangunan (sosial capital).
Dua layer diatas sedang diperankan oleh TGB, baik beliau sebagai penyeimbang (equilibirium) dan mengelakkan priksi-priksi (confilict avoidance) yang terjadi antara anak bangsa. Jika TGB berhasil dalam sikapnya maka TGB telah membuat sejarah baru tentang konseptualisasi identitas luar jawa yang tentu saja tidak jauh beda dengan daerah luar jawa lainnya menjadi subordinat dalam kepemimpinan nasional. Bak adigum “siapa yang mampu mempersunting dara betawi, dia sudah menguasai Indonesia”. Adigum ini tentu tidak lahir dalam fikiran yang hampa, tetapi ia adalah bentuk konseptualisasi fikiran yang telah memproduksi kognisi masyarakat dalam melihat dunianya. Sehingga kemudian konseptualisasi tersebut berangsur-angsur menjadi sistem, keyakinan dan politik kebudayaan. Jika TGB hadir hari ini mewakili identitas lokalnya yang mencesuar menjadi nasional adalah menjadi preseden buruk dalam sejarah generasi entitas masyarakat pinggiran, jika abai dan mengercitkan dahi sambil menundukkan pandangan tak bersuara untuk TGB. Maka tetaplah menjadi bagian subordinat alias panjak selaek-lecek (selamanya) karena tidak peka menerjemahkan arah angin yang bertiup mendekat yang seolah-olah mengatakan “ayo saatnya mengukir politik kebudayaan kita. (Kalah sik dengan toak laek [orang tua dulu] cukup menerjemahkan pergantian musim dari hembusan angin dan dari hitungan bintang di langit).
Maka TGB on the right track? TGB telah memantik daya imagi teritori yang selama ini tak terdengar dan laku suaranya. TGB sebagai simbol space identitas untuk memberikan alarm agar tak terus bermental second hand alias slaver. Jika gerakan creative minority ini masif dan terus bersumber dari entitas-entitas kecil, maka tak akan terdengarlah ‘politik apabila’, yaitu apabila menguntungkan diakomodasi, apalagi tak menguntungkan dalam kalkulasi politik diabaikan, ‘kognisi politik apabila’ yang dimetaforkan bagi entitas yang tak memiliki kesadaran politik kebudayaan.
TGB on the right track, tetapi, kita juga mesti memperhatikan in the right direction yaitu tujuan yang tepat, sebab on the right track saja tidak cukup, mesti merapikan tujuan yang jelas sehingga kita bisa mengatur on the right speed untuk mengayuh lebih cepat agar mencapai tujuan yang hebat. Dan ketiganya itu harus masuk dalam on the rigth secure dan safety agar aman sampai tujuan. Karena gerbong kapal yang dibawa mesti dipastikan tidak ada kebocoran dengan demikian penumpangya selamat sampai ketepian dengan kecepatan maksimal. So,, apakah TGB on the right track?. Tabek wallar,SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-3775098843221164372017-02-13T01:19:00.001-08:002017-02-13T01:24:23.864-08:00DONALD TRUMP DAN DAMPAK POLITIKNYA UNTUK INDONESIA<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWwtJU2EEtgzH6Y5iLniK5fb1G1A6EgsB45lDNrD41Va4CvVF0rlxzbokH4ULdGvZ6ASnHr39IwtUdf4XwJEcKh_ZK-PiCCsgwKRMUheBLvRdkMyNFYpw03VoiVTXgTwM-TJBvCNM8d7U/s1600/16731360_10208467669517603_1670482251_o.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWwtJU2EEtgzH6Y5iLniK5fb1G1A6EgsB45lDNrD41Va4CvVF0rlxzbokH4ULdGvZ6ASnHr39IwtUdf4XwJEcKh_ZK-PiCCsgwKRMUheBLvRdkMyNFYpw03VoiVTXgTwM-TJBvCNM8d7U/s320/16731360_10208467669517603_1670482251_o.jpg" width="240" height="320" /></a></div>Dalam pandangan Donald Trump dan para pembatunya, bahwa semua umat Islam itu ektremis dan memiliki potensi menjadi teroris oleh karenanya dapat mengancam keberadaan Amerika kedepan. Walaupun faktanya bahwa banyak Muslim yang berjuang dan rela mati untuk Amerika dan sudah memberikan konstribusi yang banyak untuk ekonomi Amerika. Tetapi Trump membisu, ketika fakta itu disuguhkan. Sejatinya yang menjadi ektrimis dan teroris adalah non-muslim yang dibuat oleh Amerika sendiri satu contoh ketika jamaah masjid Quebec City di Kanada diserang secara berutal pada minggu, 29 Januari 2017, dan menewaskan kalangan umat Islam, tidak ada yang bersuara lantang bahwa itu teroris, bahkan dalam berita CNN tanggal 31 Januari 2017, tidak menyebut kejadian tersebut sebagai perbuatan teroris namun CNN memberi istilah “Lone worf” atau serangan serigala. Ironi bukan?
Memang harus diakui bahwa dulu dan bahkan sekarang ketika Trump sudah diambil sumpahnya sebagai orang nomor satu di Amerika, benih-benih SARA itu kembali menggelinding. Sebagian masyarakat Amerika khususnya warga berkulit putih menganggap bahwa rasisme menjadi sematan bagi warga berkulit hitam, dan mereka yang berkulit hitam adalah biang keladai dari bangsa pemerkosa, perampok, dan pemicu kriminal. Sehingga muncullah gerakan kesetaraan dan menghapus penamaan terhadap warga kulit hitam tersebut dari Martin Luther King dan Nelson Mandela, yang mematahkan dan membendung isu-isu negative terhadap bangsa hitam, mereka bisa membuktikan bahwa bangsa hitam bukan seperti yang mereka anggap dan mereka sadar bahwa itu salah dan tidak berasalan diberikan sematan penamaan demikian.
Hingga akhirnya, Tepat 2008, ketika Barack Obama terpilih menjadi presiden, nampaknya pandagan-pandagan mulai berubah lebih baik terhadap warga minoritas dan kaum Muslim. Akan tetapi ketika Donald Trump diambil sumpahnya pada tanggal 20 Januari 2017, semuanya berubaah drastis, dimana Umat Islam sebagai minoritas disana menjadi huatir, bahkan orang Indoneisa yang sedang berada disana baik yang bekerja atau sebagai pelajar dan mahasiswa menjadi tidak tenang dengan kebijakan bombastis Trump di awal pemerintahannya, karena Trump mengangap kaum minoritas khususnya umat Islam sebagai penyakit social yang harus dibatasi bahkan diberangus dari Amerika.
Kalau dilihat ke belakang dan membuka sejarah kelam Jerman misalnya, maka 27 Januari 2017 adalah kelahiran Adolf Hitler baru bernama Donald Trump, yang memiliki sifat yang mirip dalam hal tertentu. Kalau Trump akan memberangus sedikit demi sedikit Umat Islam beda objek dengan Hitler yang memberangus Yahudi pada masa itu.
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Tetapi ada beberapa Islamopobia yang masih mendukung Trump karena beberapa alasan, seperti, dia baru saja mengambil sumpah sebagai Presiden oleh karena itu harus diberikan kesempatan untuk memenuhi janjinya. Memang benar bahwa Trump telah memenuhi beberapa janji kampanyenya antara lain moratorium izin imigrasi Negara-Negara yang mayoritas Islam. Terpilih menjadi presiden US bukan berarti dia bisa sewenang-wenang melakukan yang tidak sesuai dengan konstitusi yang tidak adil atau menindas kaum minoritas. Adolf Hitler terpilih menjadi konseler Jerman tahun 1933, dan Hitler telah benar-benar memenuhi janjinya dengan membasmi 6 juta orang Yahudi.
Mungkin sebagian orang Amerika berpendapat bahwa apa yang dilakukan Trump saat ini adalah agar demokrasi berjalan, tetapi ini bertentantangan dengan demokrasi yang sebenarnya, dimana ada check and balance didalamnya bukan melakukan penindasan terhadap kaum minoritas, inilah saatnya kehancuran demokrasi Amerika yang mendewa-dewakan kesataraan, tetapi bertolak belakang dengan kenyataan. Buktinya, Trump telah mengeluarkan larangan ke tujuh Negara mayoritas umat islam. Keputusan inilah yang tampaknya yang paling kontroversial dari Trump sejauh ini, hal tersebut diakui oleh penduduk Amerika sendiri, para diplomatnya dan Negara Negara bagian. Bukan hanya itu lebih dari 100 perusahan teknologi menentang seperti, Google, facebook, apple, Microsoft, Twitter, E bay, Uber, Dll. karena perusahan tersebut memiliki para pekerja professional dari kalangan muslim yang telah memberikan kontribusi pada perkembangan perusahaannya.
Trump dan konco-konconya telah luar biasa puyeng dan dihantui oleh fikirannya sendiri untuk membendung Amerika aman dari teroris, sehingga para pembantu Trump membuat slogan ‘alternative facts' atau fakta alternatif, ini adalah istilah baru kebohongan oleh para pembantu Presiden. Agar immigrant dari Negara-negara muslim tidak bisa masuk ke Amerika. Trump telah dikutuk bahkan oleh mantan presiden Barak Obama, bahwa yang dilakukan Trump ini tidak konstitusional dan tidak sesuai dengan misi dari PBB. Salah satu contohnya
Trump mendukung pemukiman illegal Israel di tepi barat untuk diduduki, yang seluruh dunia bahkan presiden sebelumnya mengacam hal tersebut, karena akan menghambat perdamaian antara Israel dan Palestina.
Trump juga keterlaluan dengan idenya akan memindahkan kedutaan Amerika dari Tel Aviv ke Yerusalem. Jelas ini merupakan ancaman terhadap upaya solusi dua Negara untuk menyelesaikan konflik antara Israel dan Palestina. dan akan memicu kekerasan baru di Timur Tengah, sebab masyarakat Internasional, termasuk Amerika telah mengakui bahwa Tel Aviv sebagai ibu kota Israel dan semua kedutaan Asing berada di kota ini.
Dan kelihatannya Trump juga bersi kekeh dengan strategi global anti-muslimnya. Hal inilah yang membuat popularitas Trump menjadi 44% merupakan rating terendah untuk seorang presiden baru dalam sejarah Amerika. Ini adalah pertanda baik bahwa rakyat Amerika tidak terpengaruh oleh agitasi fantastic dari Trump. Memang Trump telah membatasi tujuh Negara mayoritas muslim untuk masuk ke Amerika, yaitu Iran, Irak, Libia, Somalia, Sudan, Suriah, dan Yaman. Tetapi jika dia mendapatkan angina segar maka dia bisa memperpanjang larangan yang mencakup semua mayoritas muslim lainnya, termasuk juga Indonesia, jika hal tersebut terjadi maka umat Islam bahkan non-muslim juga akan dilarang masuk ke Indonesia.
Banyak warga Indonesia berfikir, bahwa tindakan Trump sejauh ini tidak mempengaruhi Negara kita, bahkan ada juga dari kalangan non-muslim merasa kebijakan Trump tidak akan mempengaruhi mereka, pandangan ini jelas keliru, trump hanya baru mulai gendrang pertarungannya dengan beberapa Negara Muslim saja, dan tidak mustahil Indonesia sebagai mayoritas muslim juga menjadi bidikan Trump pada waktu akan datang. Wallohua’lam Bissawab.
</span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-86265607877169236142017-01-06T21:13:00.001-08:002017-01-06T21:13:49.648-08:00PARADOKS DUA RIBU TUJUH BELAS<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Arnold P. Toynbee,
sejarawan yang dikenal dengan teori : Challege and Response, dalam
bukunya the history of mankind, mengatakan, " setiap bangsa pada
suatu saat dalam perjalanan sejarahnya akan menghadapi suatu tantangan
yang begitu besar bahkan akan menggancam eksistensinya. Terserah pada bangsa
itu untuk mengatasi tantangan yang datang itu, bangsa ini akan tenggelam dalam
lintasan sejarah bila gagal menjawab tantangan tersebut dan menjadi bangsa yang
datangnya tidak mengenapkan, perginya pun tidak mengganjilkan. Atau bila
berhasil, maka bangsa ini akan menjadi bangsa yang kehadirannya akan
diperhitungkan".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Genderang pergantian
tahun 2016 Ke 2017 sudah mulai ditabuh, suaranya hingga menembus
pelosok-pelosok desa. Pesta demokrasi disebagian desa di NTB juga sedang, akan,
dan ada yang sudah berlalu, bagi yang “sedang” dan “akan” tentu segala janji
kampaye menjadi pembicaraan alias <i>pelagak
lekong belah</i> yang renyah dibincangkan sehari hari. Bagi yang sudah berlalu,
tentu hanya menyisakan kekecewaan-kekecewaan akibat kekalahan jagoan mereka. Para
elite politik papan atas juga membangun manifesto-manifesto gerakan untuk 2017
sebagai starting point dari gerakan yang lebih besar pada tahun berikutnya. Ikrar Nusa Bhakti mengatakan "jika kita
tidak berhasil mengonsilidasikan demokrasi kita pada 2014, indonesia bukan
hanya menjadi negara gagal pada 2024, melainkan bisa juga menjadi Negara yang
roboh dan hancur berkeping-keping pada 2050. hal tersebut kemungkinan bisa
terjadi, jika para elite politik dibiarkan, atau masyarakat melakukan pembiaran
terhadap kezaliman yang mengangga didepan kita. Sehingga tentu saja generasi muda
bangsa ini harus menjadi menjadi agent of control dan agent of social equilibrium,
sebab kita tidak tidak ingin Indonesia kelak hanya tinggal dipeta-peta, atau
kita bisa meraih mimpi 2050 sebagai golden period dari bangsa Indonesia. Tetapi
kita harus optimis hal tersebut bisa diraih, sebab negara yang kini menjadi
Adidaya, sudah mulai ketakutan, kropos dan tidak bisa diharapkan dimasa depan,
roda itu berputar; dari atas menuju ke bawah, era mendatang adalah peluang emas
Indonesia. Indonesia memang dielu-elukan tetapi Indonesia adalah masa depan,
walau Paradoks tentang Indonesia masih mendarah daging
seperti: "Kita kaya tapi miskin (Kekayaan SDA melimpah, tapi miskin
penghasilan). Kita besar tapi kerdil (amat besar wilayah &
penduduknya, tapi kerdil dalam produktivitas dan daya saing) . Kita
kuat tapi lemah (kuat dalam anarkisme, lemah dalam tantangan global). Kita
indah tapi buruk (indah dalam potensi dan prospeknya, namun buruk dalam
pengelolaannya) mengapa masih terjadi paradoxial? Karena bangsa ini terkena
penyakit orientasi. seperti yang diungkap Mantan Wakil Presiden
RI Bacharudin Yusuf Habibie. Beliau menyampaikan bahwa "kita lebih
mengandalkan SDA ketimbang SDM, Kita lebih berorientasi jangka pendek
daripada jangka panjang, Kita lebih mengutamakan citra daripada karya
nyata, Kita lebih melirik makro daripada mikro , Kita lebih
mengandalkan cost added daripada value added, Kita lebih
berorientasi pada neraca pembayaran dan
perdagangan daripada neraca jam kerja, Kita lebih
menyukai jalan pintas (korupsi, kolusi, penyelewengan dsb)
daripada kejujuran dan kebajikan, Kita lebih menganggap jabatan
(power) sebagai tujuan daripada sebagai sarana untuk mencapai tujuan
(power centered rather than accountable /amanah). Jika kita mampu
menghilangkan penyakit orientasi tersebut maka tunggu apa yang akan terjadi
"itu" (meminjam bahasa Mario Teguh dalam golden way). Rakyat
Indonesia akan menjadi tuan di negaranya sendiri dan Indonesia emas 2020 yang
menjadi visi besar yang emban oleh para pendekar ESQ 165 dan seluruh rakyat
Indonesia akan menjadi kenyataan. Indonesia emas mengisyarakatkan kesuksesan
menyelesaikan masalah pada berbagai ranah kehidupan, Indonesia yang bangkit
dari segala ketertinggalan. hal tersebut akan tercapai bila penyakit orientasi
diatas mampu diluluh lantakkan. Untuk mencapai itu, pentingya sebuah paradigm
baru serta hadirya sosok pemimpin baru sebagai nahkoda yang akan membawa
bahtera yang bernama Indonesia ini ketepian kemajuan. Menurut Anies Baswedan,
pemimpin bukan soal kecerdasan, kharisma, komunikasi, tampilan dan segala macam
atribut yang biasa dilettakan pada figure pemimpin. Disebut pemimpin atau tidak
adalah soal ada tidaknya yang mengikuti. Dalam rumusan sederhana pemimpin
adalah soal pengakuan dari yang dipimpin. Seorang diakui sebagai pemimpin bila
kepadanya diberikan kepercayaan. Sehingga dalam rumusan sederhana Baswedan
mengungkapkan, pemimpin adalah orang yang diikuti kata-kata dan perbuatannya.
Diikuti karena dipercaya, karena kepercayaan adalah kombinasi dari kompetensi,
integritas dan kedekatan. Ketiga faktor ini meningkatkan tingkat kepercayaan.
Pemimpin harus menjadi pemimpi, sebab pemimpin yang mampu mengabungkan mimpi
menjadi realita bisa disebut sebagai pemimpin. Lalu peminpin juga selalu
disorot, pemimpin harus siap menerima pujian dan kritikan, jika tidak mau
dikritik jangan bermimpi jadi pemimpin, pemimpin yang tidak terbang ketika
dipuji dan tidak tumbang ketika dicaci itulah pemimpin harapan kita, seorang
pemimpin yang setiap hari diterpa keadaan sulit, jatuh dan mampu bangkit
kembali (top and down) inilah pemimpin masa depan. dan pemimpin yang kita
impikan adalah pemimpin yang tidak gila penghormatan tapi menjaga kehormatan.
Mudah mendapatkan penghoramantan pada zaman ini, karena bisa dibeli dan
dipanggungkan, sementara penghormatan itu bukan diperjual belikan, seorang
peminpin yang gagasannya terhormat maka dengan sendiri dia akan mendapatkan
kehormatan. "penghormatan itu foto sedangkan wajah adalah karakter,
penghormatan itu bertahan seperti jamur, sedangkan karakter hidup selamanya,
penghormatan itu apa yang orang katakan tentang kita diatas batu nisan,
sementara karakter apa yang orang katakan tentang kita pada masa mendatang dan
hidup selamanya". Maka sebagai manifesto gerakan 2017, pemimpin harus
memiliki mimpi, nyali yang besar, karakter yang kokoh dan pemimpin yang
berintegritas. Indonesia membutuhkan pemimpin yang berani menegakkan
integritas, berani perangi jual beli kebijakan dan jabatan, dan pemimpin yang
berani pasang badan ketika rakyat dijarah oleh mereka yang memiliki jaringan.
Bukan pemimpin yang diam ketika rakyat didera, lembek saat Negara dilecehkan,
seorang pemimpin yang tidak membiarkan secuilpun rakyat dicendrai oleh
siapapun. Pemimpin harus mampu menghadirkan suasana yang harmonies, pemimpin
sebagai dirgen dalam pertunjukan orchestra sehingga musik yang dimainkan
memiliki jiwa-nya, pemimpin hadir dengan Suasana memberikan arah, membawa misi dan
menelurkannya pada rakyat. Dan yang kita butuhkan adalah pemimpin yang
berorientasi pada gerakan, pendekatannya movement bukan programmatik sehingga
semua merasa terpanggil untuk terlibat. Kita memerlukan pemimpin yang
menginspirasi, membukakan perspektif baru, menyodorkan kesadaran baru dan
menyalakan harapan jadi lebih terang. Indonesia yang lebih baik adalah harapan kita
semua pada 2017.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-83549363435111551782016-11-08T20:50:00.004-08:002016-11-08T20:50:55.741-08:00TIMBAL BALIK DAN UMPAN BALIK OPINI LIGA SANTRI NUSANTARA<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLTeNynREjy8wYFQcLQ6TeglVar-lIawYifeIeUgSLqnCL9W_jX0xVNeT7OUG5cWuBZ8Pcu7etDuNlVynPTUmeSGR8rwz4hhGXkXv2aHZJmML9h7mklu7jDNkwnCpqwHg68mwg_ODHUpU/s1600/radar+lombok-page-002.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIRNN__txn1hBhc8Kjy0ahwjd74Dz_lccX9IzIYbMnqIXRQBJilM_2Aaiqx30R993dFh1xI7YvuC6blhSOlypqCLMPmG7lcZgTgmus3pyMlu1Cx44lc31jz-f5lmFuu55hzqBRTMYXLwg/s1600/radar+lombok-page-001.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIRNN__txn1hBhc8Kjy0ahwjd74Dz_lccX9IzIYbMnqIXRQBJilM_2Aaiqx30R993dFh1xI7YvuC6blhSOlypqCLMPmG7lcZgTgmus3pyMlu1Cx44lc31jz-f5lmFuu55hzqBRTMYXLwg/s640/radar+lombok-page-001.jpg" width="640" /></a><img border="0" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLTeNynREjy8wYFQcLQ6TeglVar-lIawYifeIeUgSLqnCL9W_jX0xVNeT7OUG5cWuBZ8Pcu7etDuNlVynPTUmeSGR8rwz4hhGXkXv2aHZJmML9h7mklu7jDNkwnCpqwHg68mwg_ODHUpU/s640/radar+lombok-page-002.jpg" width="640" /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIRNN__txn1hBhc8Kjy0ahwjd74Dz_lccX9IzIYbMnqIXRQBJilM_2Aaiqx30R993dFh1xI7YvuC6blhSOlypqCLMPmG7lcZgTgmus3pyMlu1Cx44lc31jz-f5lmFuu55hzqBRTMYXLwg/s1600/radar+lombok-page-001.jpg" imageanchor="1"><br /></a></div>
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</span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-46424091374455176472015-02-02T05:50:00.002-08:002015-02-02T05:50:31.114-08:00STUDI BUDAYA PRODI BAHASA INGGRIS FKIP UGR DI DESA ADAT SADE Minggu, 25 Januari 2015<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Fakultas keguruan dal Ilmu pendidikan (FKIP UGR) Prodi bahasa Inggris
melaksanakan Studi Budaya di Desa Sade Lombok Tengah, yang diikuti oleh
25 Mahasiswa dan didampingi oleh 2 Dosen. Tujuan pelaksanaan kegiatan
tersebut untuk menyelesaikan tugas mata kuliah english for tourism.
selain itu, kegiatan tersebut sebagai ajang memetakan dan merencanakan
promosi pariwisata di Nusa tenggara Barat. dalam kegiatan tersebut
mahasiswa sudah disiapkan dengan instrumen yang akan diisi sesuai
kondisi lapangan yang ditemukan, sehingga dari data yang didapat
mahasiswa mampu memberikan solusi yang solutif untuk pembenahan
destinasi wisata di Nusa Tenggara Barat. setelah pelaksanaan studi
budaya ini, Mahasiswa berkewajiban untuk mempublikasikan objek wisata
yang dikunjungi kedalam blog pribadi mahasiswa.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRll2JLnE5dioEygRz6C9Wge_B6Bse0Ix60WYQ-TuTAFRsK873COxnwIUQ2SkekffmMcWDmvAFzIiv9cDvoFrbYSARCWjhSKloaxkyvpT6OcVkmQCUEWXMeOtnQhRA0BTLshIsyJPTauA/s1600/C360_2015-01-25-09-55-27-500+-+Copy.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRll2JLnE5dioEygRz6C9Wge_B6Bse0Ix60WYQ-TuTAFRsK873COxnwIUQ2SkekffmMcWDmvAFzIiv9cDvoFrbYSARCWjhSKloaxkyvpT6OcVkmQCUEWXMeOtnQhRA0BTLshIsyJPTauA/s1600/C360_2015-01-25-09-55-27-500+-+Copy.jpg" height="150" width="200" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQZacDtjnaM2h6ivtO4V1HFBqCbafO72mNKOsHYnpLOvPIAdrrCsKq1WrwtePn439qWk7MM3xkzb7u70WJM0FtnMBt8EuTtFp5eMT08bqglxYhrsEb7oq2533of0u42mihCZjTYsoaPPY/s1600/C360_2015-01-25-11-11-16-172.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQZacDtjnaM2h6ivtO4V1HFBqCbafO72mNKOsHYnpLOvPIAdrrCsKq1WrwtePn439qWk7MM3xkzb7u70WJM0FtnMBt8EuTtFp5eMT08bqglxYhrsEb7oq2533of0u42mihCZjTYsoaPPY/s1600/C360_2015-01-25-11-11-16-172.jpg" height="150" width="200" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoxP4oyDV5eVrdCja2EZd8uiRuu3D58j1ENDWaWKS8oInhYr_d3o3DulwPIiWF__u0-j9YKPsOIe_QEFJRTgvppraSPm5F_9VDYlcu_UfT9cUb-3PhiL7-PQRkLEAkdqIMNcC5lxE0Btw/s1600/C360_2015-01-25-13-11-32-628.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoxP4oyDV5eVrdCja2EZd8uiRuu3D58j1ENDWaWKS8oInhYr_d3o3DulwPIiWF__u0-j9YKPsOIe_QEFJRTgvppraSPm5F_9VDYlcu_UfT9cUb-3PhiL7-PQRkLEAkdqIMNcC5lxE0Btw/s1600/C360_2015-01-25-13-11-32-628.jpg" height="150" width="200" /></a></div>
SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-65103491229933489342014-01-12T19:33:00.002-08:002014-01-12T19:33:27.903-08:00Menatap Masa Depan Indonesia<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: blue;"><b>Gendrang pergantian tahun sudah ditabuh, suaranya hingga pelosok-pelosok desa, membuat orang diam berani bicara, orang pengecut berani berteriak, dan mereka yang sedang tidur langsung terjaga, lalu mereka mulai berdandan, mengatur ritme dan strategi untuk menyonsong tahun baru 2014 dengan kemungkinan-kemungkinan yang sulit ditafsir. Sebab pada 2014 Indonesia akan melaksanakan seabrek gawe besar yaitu pemilu presiden dan legislative. Pemilu 2014 tinggal menghitung bulan, tetapi disisi lain kita masih disibukkan dengan kecurangan kecurangan pemilu sebelumnya, lalu apakah kita siap melaksanakan pemilu berikutnya?,kekisruhan pemilu itu juga diurus dan diselesaikan oleh mereka yang bermasalah dan korup, dan lebih parah lagi Institusi yang bernama Mahkamah Konstitusi yang menjadi sandaran terakhir dari semua proses hukum di Indonesia, malah ketuanya yang ditangkap tangan oleh KPK, lalu kemana pelabuhan terakhir untuk mengadu? Seolah olah “menyelasaikan masalah dengan masalah baru.” Pertarungan yang tak wajar para elite politik dalam meraih kekuasaan serta korupsi oleh para kader partai yang berada dipemerintahan, sehinga ini menjadi cermin buram untuk pemilu berikutnya, maka wajar Ikrar Nusa Bhakti (professor riset bidang intermestic affairs-LIPI) mengatakan ”jika kita tidak berhasil mengonsilidasikan demokrasi kita pada 2014, indonesia bukan hanya menjadi negara gagal pada 2024, melainkan bisa juga menjadi Negara yang roboh dan hancur berkeping-keping pada 2050. Dan sejalan menarik juga apa yang disinyalir oleh, Arnold P. Toynbee, sejarawan yang dikenal dengan teori : Challege and Response, dalam bukunya the history of mankind kurang lebih mengatakan, “ setiap bangsa pada suatu saat dalam perjalanan sejarahnya akan menghadapi suatu tantangan yang begitu besar bahkan akan menggancam eksistensinya. Terserah pada bangsa itu untuk mengatasi tantangan yang datang itu, bangsa ini akan tenggelam dalam lintasan sejarah bila gagal menjawab tantangan tersebut dan menjadi bangsa yang datangnya tidak mengenapkan, perginya pun tidak mengganjilkan. Atau bila berhasil, maka bangsa ini akan menjadi bangsa yang kehadirannya akan diperhitungkan”.
Tentu saja, hal tersebut tidak bisa ditentukan oleh para elite politik saja, melainkan pada kita semua generasi akan datang sebagai pemilik bangsa ini, apakah kita menginginkan Indonesia hanya tinggal dipeta-peta, atau kita akan meraih mimpi 2050 sebagai golden period bangsa seperti yang ditafsirkan oleh para ahli. Tetapi dengan optimis hal tersebut bisa kita raih. Sebab negara yang kini maju, sudah tidak bisa diharapkan dimasa depan, roda itu berputar; dari atas menuju ke bawah, era mendatang adalah kesempatan Indonesia sebab tidak ada lagi dalam daftar negara adidaya dimasa depan seperti Jepang, Amerika, German, UK. Indonesia memang masa depan, walau Paradoks tentang Indonesia masih mendarah daging seperti: “Kita kaya tapi miskin (Kekayaan SDA melimpah, tapi miskin penghasilan) . Kita besar tapi kerdil (amat besar wilayah & penduduknya, tapi kerdil dalam produktivitas dan daya saing) . Kita kuat tapi lemah (kuat dalam anarkisme, lemah dalam tantangan global). Kita indah tapi buruk (indah dalam potensi dan prospeknya, namun buruk dalam pengelolaannya) mengapa masih terjadi paradoxial? Karena bangsa ini terkena penyakit orientasi. seperti yang diungkap Mantan Wakil Presiden RI Bacharudin Yusuf Habibie. Beliau menyampaikan bahwa “kita lebih mengandalkan SDA ketimbang SDM, Kita lebih berorientasi jangka pendek daripada jangka panjang, Kita lebih mengutamakan citra daripada karya nyata, Kita lebih melirik makro daripada mikro , Kita lebih mengandalkan cost added daripada value added, Kita lebih berorientasi pada neraca pembayaran dan perdagangan daripada neraca jam kerja, Kita lebih menyukai jalan pintas (korupsi, kolusi, penyelewengan dsb) daripada kejujuran dan kebajikan, Kita lebih menganggap jabatan (power) sebagai tujuan daripada sebagai sarana untuk mencapai tujuan (power centered rather than accountable /amanah). Jika kita mampu menghilangkan penyakit orientasi tersebut maka tunggu apa yang akan terjadi “itu” (meminjam bahasa Mario Teguh dalam golden way). Rakyat Indonesia akan menjadi tuan di negaranya sendiri dan Indonesia emas 2020 yang menjadi visi besar yang emban oleh para pendekar ESQ 165 dan seluruh rakyat Indonesia akan menjadi kenyataan. Indonesia emas mengisyarakatkan kesuksesan menyelesaikan masalah pada berbagai ranah kehidupan, Indonesia yang bangkit dari segala ketertinggalan. hal tersebut akan tercapai bila penyakit orientasi diatas mampu diluluh lantakan.
<span class="fullpost">
Untuk mencapi itu, pentingya sebuah paradigm baru serta hadirya sosok pemimpin baru sebagai nahkoda yang akan membawa bahtera yang bernama Indonesia ini ketepian kemajuan. Menurut Anies Baswedan, pemimpin bukan soal kecerdasan, kharisma, komunikasi, tampilan dan segala macam atribut yang biasa dilettakan pada figure pemimpin. Disebut pemimpin atau tidak adalah soal ada tidaknya yang mengikuti. Dalam rumusan sederhana pemimpin adalah soal pengakuan dari yang dipimpin. Seorang diakui sebagai pemimpin bila kepadanya diberikan kepercayaan. Sehingga dalam rumusan sederhana Baswedan mengungkapkan, pemimpin adalah orang yang diikuti kata-kata dan perbuatannya. Diikuti karena dipercaya, karena kepercayaan adalah kombinasi dari kompetensi, integritas dan kedekatan. Ketiga faktor ini meningkatkan tingkat kepercayaan. Pemimpin harus menjadi pemimpi, sebab pemimpin yang mampu mengabungkan mimpi menjadi realita bisa disebut sebagai pemimpin. Lalu peminpin juga selalu disorot, pemimpin harus siap menerima pujian dan kritikan, jika tidak mau dikritik jangan bermimpi jadi pemimpin, pemimpin yang tidak terbang ketika dipuji dan tidak tumbang ketika dicaci itulah pemimpin harapan kita, seorang pemimpin yang setiap hari diterpa keadaan sulit, jatuh dan mampu bangkit kembali (top and down) inilah pemimpin masa depan. dan pemimpin yang kita impikan adalah pemimpin yang tidak gila penghormatan tapi menjaga kehormatan. Mudah mendapatkan penghoramantan pada zaman ini, karena bisa dibeli dan dipanggungkan, sementara penghormatan itu bukan diperjual belikan, seorang peminpin yang gagasannya terhormat maka dengan sendiri dia akan mendapatkan kehormatan. “penghormatan itu foto sedangkan wajah adalah karakter, penghormatan itu bertahan seperti jamur, sedangkan karakter hidup selamanya, penghormatan itu apa yang orang katakan tentang kita diatas batu nisan, sementara karakter apa yang orang katakan tentang kita pada masa mendatang dan hidup selamanya”.
Maka sebagai manifesto gerakan tahun 2014, pemimpin harus memiliki mimpi, nyali yang besar, karakter yang kokoh dan pemimpin yang berintegritas. Indonesia membutuhkan pemimpin yang berani menegakkan integritas, berani perangi jual beli kebijakan dan jabatan, dan pemimpin yang berani pasang badan ketika rakyat dijarah oleh mereka yang memiliki jaringan. Bukan pemimpin yang diam ketika rakyat didera, lembek saat Negara dilecehkan, seorang pemimpin yang tidak membiarkan secuilpun rakyat dicendrai oleh siapapun. Pemimpin harus mampu menghadirkan suasana yang harmonies, pemimpin sebagai dirgen dalam pertunjukan orchestra sehingga musik yang dimainkan memiliki jiwa-nya, pemimpin hadir dengan Suasana memberikan arah, membawa misi dan menelurkannya pada rakyat. Dan yang kita butuhkan adalah pemimpin yang berorientasi pada gerakan, pendekatannya movement bukan programmatic sehingga semua merasa terpanggil untuk terlibat. Kita memerlukan pemimpin yang menginspirasi, membukakan perspektif baru, menyodorkan kesadaran baru dan menyalakan harapan jadi lebih terang.
Oleh karena itu, apapun posisi dan jabatan kita hari ini, mulailah menjadi aktor bukan penonton sehingga kita bisa melihat masa depan Indonesia yang lebih baik. Wassalam.
</span></b></span></div>
SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-1309360749919168552013-07-20T01:58:00.003-07:002013-07-20T01:58:49.587-07:00Presiden Uruguay Tidak Mengenal Nabi Muhammad SAW<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.digitaljournal.com/img/5/9/2/8/1/2/i/1/3/1/p-large/mujica5.JPG&imgrefurl=http://digitaljournal.com/article/336983&usg=__wBE7u6YEo7U_ps0fgdR9_gJplec=&h=340&w=620&sz=30&hl=id&start=8&sig2=QC4KO87ZHtTBUW6I_RwfsQ&zoom=1&tbnid=1wlHpb6G8uLdyM:&tbnh=75&tbnw=136&ei=CFHqUZXVAoPjrAfJjoGgAg&um=1&itbs=1&sa=X&ved=0CDoQrQMwBw" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img height="176" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcT_T_WfXZXeVMb2fw_BCHa0ztBw0-8AqqTjd_R1-EGwBUF-biQ8aARtQzA" width="320" /></a>Jose yang nama lengkapnya Jose Alberto Mujica Cordano barangkali ia
tidak pernah membaca sejarah Nabi Muhammad SAW, apalagi mengenal beliau,
tetapi kepemimpinan dan kesederhanaannya seolah menteladani
Rasullalloh, bagaimana tidak seorang yang menjadi nomor satu di Uruguay
tinggal disebuah perkampungan pertanian (farmhouse) yang jauh dari kota.
Pepe panggilan akrab teman-temannya menolak tinggal dirumah dinasnya di
Montevideo ibu kota Uruguay. bahkan ia menyumbangkan 90 persen gajinya
setiap bulan yaitu, 12.000 dollar AS atau hampir Rp 120 juta untuk
berbagai kegiatan amal.
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Sehingga, Presiden Uruguay ini disebut sebagai presiden termiskin di
dunia, tetapi dengan sangat filosofis ia menjawab semua pemberitaan
terhadap dirinya ‘” s<em>aya disebut presiden termiskin didunia, tetapi
saya tidak merasa miskin, orang miskin adalah mereka yang bekerja untuk
menjaga gaya hidup mewahnya dan selalu menginginkan lebih”</em></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<em>“ini adalah masalah kebebasan, jika anda tidak memiliki banyak
barang maka anda tak perlu bekerja keras dan mempertahankannya dan
bekerja seumur hidup layaknya budak, dengan seperti ini anda lebih
banyak waktu untuk diri sendiri”</em></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Potret pemimpin seperti Jose ini sangat langka didunia, apalagi di
Indonesia yang seharusnya meniru keperibadian Rasullalloh karena
mayoritas rakyatnya beragama Islam, sederhana bukan berarti tidak
menglobal cara berfikir dan berbuat, seperti Sang Rasul kesederhanaan
dan sama kata dan perbuatan beliaulah yang mengetarkan dunia,. sehingga
tidak terlalu berlebihan kalau dikatakan Jose menteladani Nabi Muhammad
walau ia sendiri tak pernah membaca sejarah kerasulan beliau, tetapi
potret yang ditampilkan Jose memiliki ruh yang sama dengan ajaran Nabi
Muhammad SAW yaitu Islam.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
banyak pernyataan klise tentang kehidupan Jose Presiden Uruguay yang satu ini,”<em> cari-cari popularitaslah”</em>
dan pernyataan lainnya, apalagi dunia yang dijalani oleh Jose adalah
dunia politik tidak bisa dinapikan pasti ada yang pro dan kontra.
terlepas dari semua itu, Khalifah umat Islam keempat menyatakan <em>” kebenaran yang dicari kemudian salah tidaklah sama dengan kebatilan yang dicari kemudian kita mendapatkannya”</em> (Ali Bin Abi Tholib)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Sekarang bagaimana pemimpin di Negeri yang bernama Indonesia? tentu saja
sulit mencari Jose berikutnya. tetapi bangsa ini harus optimis suatu
saat kita akan menemukan pemimpin yang bisa diteladani oleh rakyatnya
karena dunia ini terus berputar “zero to hero”</div>
SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-38134421990873940042013-07-18T18:59:00.001-07:002013-07-18T18:59:22.118-07:00Part 2. Akhirnya Agus Pulang.!!<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<a href="http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://blog.umy.ac.id/berbagiilmu/files/2012/07/a5.jpg&imgrefurl=http://blog.umy.ac.id/berbagiilmu/2012/07/09/pulang-kampung/&usg=__-5JUUGuUL58Qxzui1KPCkHTEQAo=&h=400&w=338&sz=27&hl=id&start=3&sig2=yZ0KJkbNaA-XnFQaL5P40g&zoom=1&tbnid=VPkLZtA5Tl_A-M:&tbnh=124&tbnw=105&ei=DZ3oUfHtDYTNrQednYCIDw&itbs=1&sa=X&ved=0CDAQrQMwAg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img height="320" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRccWCDul-eqiAL7WOr6htbdbiV3VVORRpBqaCUxYsT0vhEkMC2klgqlHc" width="270" /></a><span style="color: blue;">Belasan hari lamanya Agus dan
saudaranya tak muncul batang hidung, akhirnya aku berpapasan dengan </span><span style="color: blue;">bapaknya Agus‘eh pak Made "kije Agus? (bahasa bali) Bapaknya menjawab liburan ke rumah neneknya (sentak aku
berfikir gaya sekali agus pergi liburan kerumah neneknya di Karang Asem),,o ya
liburan sekolah walaupun agus tak sekolah tapi ikut liburan juga MANTAP, sebab
satu cita-cita bapaknya untuk Agus dia tak perlu sekolah tinggi-tinggi sebab kelak
kalau besar Agus menjadi tukang gocek ayam,,hha,,”super sekali” (Mario teguh).
Ternyata tadi pagi aku melihat ia sudah pulang liburan karena libur sekolah
sudah usai (tak sekolah tapi liburan pula). Pantes saja pak made tidak kelihatan
beberapa hari ternyata ia pergi menjemput Agus di karangasem. Mengapa agus yang
aku cari padahal banyak teman seusianya disamping kontrakan, tetapi dialah bagi
saya yang berbeda dari temannya yang lain, sebab selalu setiap siang bolong
Agus mulai membangunkan seisi kontrakan dengan tendangan madunnya..(Tendagan
madun,,darrrr) bola bertubrukan dengan tembok ,,(pasti ulahnya agus gerutuku)
ternyata betul dia bermain dengan sapi ompong..sebutan ku untuk temannya Agus
yang tak punya gigi, ya sama juga nakalnya tetapi agus lebih dari nakal dan kuat
walaupun perawakan dia kecil tetapi kalau dua tiga kali jatuh agus tak akan
menangis tetapi kalau temannya yang lain pasti nangis.</span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;">Nah,,,mulai sudah episodenya
madun dikontrakan GECEK (Gerakan Cendikiawan) kataku karena Agus sudah pulang. Tetapi
kami memiliki cara ampuh agar Agus berhenti main bola yaitu dikasi uang untuk
beli permen atau disiapkan permen sebagai sogokan agar ia tak bermain bola,
setelah itu dia pasti nurut apapun yang saya suruh, itulah agus, selalu mencari
gara-gara, sehingga ketika berlibur kerumah kakeknya, kontrakan kami terasa
nyaman, tetapi saya merasa ada yang berbeda dengan hari-hari biasanya. Ya itulah
manusia kadang apa yang ia benci suatu saat bisa saja ia mencintainya, dan apa
yang kita cintai suatu saat bisa saja kita benci…diatas segalanya janganlah
terlalu untuk hal tersebut..sebab kita sering merindukan sesuatu ketika hal
tersebut tidak ada..continued.</span></div>
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</span></span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-91012425799332802372013-07-10T21:37:00.000-07:002013-07-10T21:37:27.160-07:00Part 2 Sholat Teraweh di Kota Singa (a spiritual journey) the series; Puasa di Pulau Dewata,<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span id="xjs"></span><span style="color: blue;">Aku tidak mendengar suara adzan
berkumandang seperti dikampungku lombok yang suara adzannya bersahutan, disini
seperti berada dalam sebuah hutan belantara yang terdengar hanya bising burung
berkicau, yang diganti oleh deru mobil. Anda harus menjadi seorang petapa yang
memiliki daya nyali rasa agar anda waspada pada terkaman singa waktu, jika tidak
semuanya akan kelewatan, Zuhur, Asar, apalagi magrib tentu akan lewat, sebab
tidak signal yang akan mengisyaratkan hal tersebut. </span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><a class="rg_hl uh_hl" href="http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://ponpesalfithrahgp.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/sang-musafir.jpg&imgrefurl=http://ponpesalfithrahgp.wordpress.com/2008/11/07/puisi-perjalanan-sang-musafir/&h=769&w=790&sz=391&tbnid=lZqtvg14SgF-XM:&tbnh=82&tbnw=84&zoom=1&usg=__C99HjS8WY5PNdN3KQT-SWOXnvfY=&docid=yGv1dPfqM3T4gM&sa=X&ei=rDLeUbXYAtHEkAXXu4GoCw&ved=0CC4Q9QEwAQ&dur=9529" id="rg_hl" style="clear: left; display: block; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; position: relative;"><img alt="" class="rg_hi uh_hi" data-height="221" data-width="228" height="221" id="rg_hi" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcS0mx6oH9kgJ97BmKa21Eqnx7F0sE8UuHtdzTiem2ciUWDwWsz0" style="height: 221px; width: 228px;" width="228" /></a>Selesai berbuka puasa dengan makanan
seadanya, ada sate kambing, opor telur ayam, dan campur gerupuk, ditemani es
buah wah sempurna sekali, selesai makan langsung bergegas berangkat ke masjid
sebab kalau terlambat ditinggalkan oleh pilot sholat (Imam Sholat). Ini malam
pertama saya teraweh dengan imam sholat yang luar biasa lembutnya,(lama) tidak
seperti dikampung saya dua puluh menit sudah selesai sholat teraweh, dengan
system jet tempur “istilah kami dulu” tetapi jangan terlalu cepat dan lama juga
ya sedang-sedang saja,,..(aku menggerutu, malam ini lama sekali terawehnya)
bayang pandangku jauh kebelakang ketika masih kecil kami pindah-pindah setiap
malam ke musholla yang berbeda-beda untuk sholat teraweh, tentu tempat
pencarian terakhir adalah imam sholat yang paling cepat, melebihi jet tanpa
awak amerika itu (ceritanya). Lucu memang tetapi itulah yang terjadi.</span></div>
<span style="color: blue;">
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<span style="color: blue;">Kali ini, aku berada di kota
singaraja, sebagai icon Bali kota pendidikan, yang memiliki jargon Singaraja
Smile (bersama bupati Baru PAS). Teraweh di masjid Jami’ adalah adalah sebuah
pilihan yang harus dan pengalaman pertama. Semua masyarakat muslim Singaraja membanjiri
masjid, tetapi yang mengejutkan pada rakaat pertama masih penuh sampai saff
paling belakang, pada rakaat ke 4 tinggal 50 % jamaah semuanya kabur,,ya aku positif
thinking saja barangkali berbeda mazhab, yah biarkan saja atau semuanya kebelet
pingin buang air besar. Positif thinking saja, masak sedang ibadah masih ada
perasaan tidak baik yang menggoroti hati kita. Tetapi aku bersyukur bisa teraweh
di negeri sendiri, dulu waktu di Bangkok dan Singapore kami tidak punya
kesempatan teraweh di Masjid, walau kami pergi ke little India di komplek
Mustafa supermarket yang buka 24 jam di Singapore yang memiliki masjid besar disampingnya
tetapi tetap saja tidak bisa. Tetapi seperti kata penggelamang alias sang
musafir, “bukan tempat yang menuntun kita menuju ketepian, tetapi rasa yang
menaungi kita sebagai kompas sampai ke tujuan” ya,,memang tempat penting tetapi
tidak harus,,yang penting kita taddabur raga dan sukma kita. Allamdullilah Ya
Allah dimanapun aku berada Kau berikan kenikmatan Ibadah..continued...</span></div>
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</span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-51068977628420797732013-07-10T00:21:00.004-07:002013-07-10T00:36:31.647-07:00Agus Agus<pre><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: red;"><b><i>Anak sekecil itu berkelahi dengan waktu</i></b></span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: red;"><b><i>Demi satu impian yang kerab ganggu tidurmu</i></b></span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: red;"><b><i>Anak sekecil itu tak sempat nikmati waktu</i></b></span></span></span></pre>
<pre><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: red;"><b><i>Dipaksa pecahkan karang lemah jarimu terkepal (Iwan Fals) </i></b></span></span></span></pre>
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<a href="http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://emhasantosa.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/mengais-sampah.jpg%3Fw%3D215%26h%3D300&imgrefurl=http://emhasantosa.wordpress.com/2011/11/24/cerita-sampah/&usg=__JBW6srNtUq3Ey8S6Li5byZuYOrU=&h=300&w=215&sz=17&hl=id&start=5&sig2=F_HTgn3r2NgrqkvQH2EE0w&zoom=1&tbnid=XwkoSMUV09JghM:&tbnh=116&tbnw=83&ei=4wrdUburHor3rQfGloGYDQ&itbs=1&sa=X&ved=0CDQQrQMwBA" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img height="320" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSdpEE1JjzzsXBJuftIO0soO1ZAG4eN4pi3zKMB-bC-kkYQawDKgnAV4Q" width="228" /></a><span style="color: blue;">Sungguh, jemari ini tak bisa menari dengan alpabeta, karena kebiasaannya telah ditinggalkan sudah sangat lama,,tetapi ada sesuatu yang membuatnya harus kembali menulis sebuah aksara yang tak bisa dibendung, ah..ini semua terjadi karena anak itu,,,!ya seorang anak yang setiap hari aku lihat berebut makanan dengan empat saudaranya, mereka masing-masing diberikan sama-sama dua suap nasi oleh ibunya sekedar untuk menganjal perut,,, ahhhh pantas saja, kemaren aku melihat anak yang paling kecil dari mereka mengais bekas makanan di tong sampah didepan tempat saya tinggal, aku sengaja saja tidak melihatnya ia menjilati bekas bungkus es,,perasaanku teriris,, sambil memaki-maki pada bapaknya dalam hati, Bapaknya namanya Made ia tak punya pekerjaan bukan hanya itu lebih parah lagi ia tak mau bekerja, ya,,cuman mengandalkan togelnya setiap satu bulan keluar 90 ribuan itupun kalau ia beruntung. sekarang ditambah lagi istrinya hamil lagi, jadi bisa dipastikan anaknya yang lima orang itu lahir setiap tahun, luar biasa itulah yang menjadi pekerjaannya yang terberat, saya menggurutu lagi..seinggat saya dulu pak Made biasa panggilan akrab kami pernah bekerja jadi tukang parkir ditempat adu ayam (gojekan) ya lumayan asap dapurnya bisa mengepul setiap hati, sehingga sampai-sampai anaknya yang bernama Agus disuruh bercita-cita menjadi pengocek ayam yang selalu menang..haa..sederhana sekali cita-cita bapak ini kepada anaknya..cerita-demi cerita dari tetangga pak made ini sebenarnya keluarnya orang besar-besar cuma ia tak mau bekerja ditempat keluarganya apalagi istrinya juga termasuk orang kaya di karang Asem, tetapi ia tak mau lebih mau ia ngekos bersama kelima anaknya semuanya tinggal diukuran kamar 3x4. </span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;">setiap hari aku mendegarnya mengkritik kebijakan negara ini, yang tak berpihak pada keluarha miskin,,katanya aku tidak pernah dapat BLSM selama minyak tanah dinaikkan oleh pemerintah, ia terus mengguruti akhirnya kembali pada ego aslinya, memang aku juga tidak mau dikasi sampah seperti itu..aneh memang diserba keterbatasannya ia masih ngengsi apalgi kerja semrautan..</span>continued</div>
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</span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-89721012703116439562013-07-09T20:59:00.001-07:002013-07-09T21:03:48.441-07:00Berpuasa di Pulau Dewata (Sebuah Catatan)<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://baliessence.wizzywighost.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/BAli-temple-copy-2.jpg&imgrefurl=http://baliessence.com/&usg=__dbhDP5C2V_IEBOQwwmcvxMqLvIs=&h=864&w=1331&sz=1092&hl=id&start=13&sig2=XdWy7NoUKHfZpFJhcxLa0g&zoom=1&tbnid=cQJ8754o-61paM:&tbnh=97&tbnw=150&ei=6dzcUfPSMsKHrAfPqoHgAQ&um=1&itbs=1&sa=X&ved=0CEQQrQMwDA" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img height="97" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQnCTgogsRYgSsFnx-bsJweIR-qca7cRTp6R-oFPJSiwCMCGR1MkwSZMUw" width="150" /></a><b><span style="color: blue;">Tidak ada satupun yang berubah, baik rasa maupun kebinggeran sehari-hari, tetap saja seperti biasa suara bising sepeda motor dan mobil menderu-deru, dan bau kemeyan didepan tempat tinggalku juga tak berubah, dan lagu-lagu keagamaan disenandungkan oleh para mangku pure. Aku seolah tak percaya apakah hari ini awal puasa atau tidak, lalu segera melihat kalender islam yang di bagikan oleh calon DPD Bali yang katanya satu-satunya wakil ummat Islam di Bali,,o ya ternyata benar besok berpuasa..dan tetangga disamping kontrakan juga mengucapkan selamat berpuasa, dan bertanya ”endak pulang Pak?,,aku jawab saja santai,,”endak, sudah biasa diluar berpuasa” walau berat sesunggunya berpuasa jauh dari keluarga, yah tetapi hal ini sering terjadi,, tahun kemaren aku berpuasa di negeri orang,, Thailand. disana cari makan yang halal susah, ya untung ada durian Bangkok yang selalu menjadi pengganjal perut walau pernah mabuk karena kebanyakan makan, sebelum dapat tempat makan ya…yang kami tidak tahu halal atau tidak, t</span></b><b><span style="color: blue;">erpaksa harus makan walau hanya memesan ikan bakar…dan nasi doang..hal ini juga terjadi waktu aku di Singapore walau disana boleh dibilang lebih banyak restoran yang halal ketimbang di Bangkok, tetapi tetap saja kami kelaparan dulu sebelum sampai di restoran yang kami tuju.. waktu itu aku tinggal di kawasan Orchad pusat kota Singapore ternyata tetap saja yang paling enak dinegeri sendiri walau makan pelecing kangkung.. Yah,, sekarang kembali lagi berpuasa di pulau dewata, sudah dua tahun berturut-turut aku berpuasa di Bali, seperti biasa selalu jauh dari nuansa-nuansa bulan Ramadhan, tidak seperti di Lombok yang setiap merebot masjid, Mushalla menyampaikan pengumuman,,hallo-hallo Inak Amak semeton jari bareh Bian-bian taok te roah kembian jari ndak pade lupak jok masjid shalat terawih berjamaah, sak bini-bini jauk dulang endah” (hallo-hallo bapak/Ibu nanti sore kita akan roah kembian (bawa makanan ke Masjid untuk Ibu-Ibu dan makan bersama) dan jangan lupa mulai malam ini kita sholat teraweh berjamaah, dan ibu-ibu bawa dulang (semacam tempat makanan)” ya itulah kebinggeran yang selalu menjadi nuansa kami berpuasa di pulau lebih dari seribu Masjid Lombok. Malam hari anak-muda, tua laki-perempuan tadarrusan di masjid (membaca alquran bersama). Hal ini semakin mengingatkanku pada Lombok dan aku tidak dapatkan disini.
Walau demikian, aku memiliki cara sendiri untuk merasakan itu, aku percaya bahwa ada yang lebih essensi dari semua yang berbau ceremonial, yaitu merubah maindset/cara berfikir, menuju Tadabbur Hati (merasakan sesuatu lebih tajam ketimbang kita mengucapkannya) ya tadabbur saja, toh pun sama dimana bumi kita pijak disana Tuhan selalu bersama kita.. Tadabbur harus dilakukan oleh semua Umat Islam untuk merasakan berpuasa itu dalam hati bukan hanya berhenti dari makan dan minum,,orang yang melakukan Tadabbur mereka akan bertannya,, Pernahkan aku merasakan kelaparan yang diderita oleh saudara-saudara saya yang memang tidak makan karena tidak ada makanan? Kita terus melakukan tadabbur pada diri kita, menajamkan mata bathin, memperhalus sukma yang setiap hari menerima keadaan yang berubah-rubah,,makanya puasa adalah lading menstabilkan semuanya… continued…
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SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-11917169166093123552013-06-11T19:13:00.000-07:002013-07-10T00:37:28.503-07:00Study Banding Kepala SMK Lombok Timur Ke Singapore & Kualaumpur<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Putra Jaya (Pusat Pemerintahan Malaysia)<br />
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Pose di Merlion <br />
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</span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-28075902551041360222013-02-17T07:24:00.000-08:002013-02-17T07:24:24.787-08:00ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING METHOD PROBLEM SOLVING<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #0b5394;">A. Introduction
All teachers are likely to agree that they not only want their students to understand information that is presented to them but also want them to understand what they are doing when they are solving problems or conducting an experiment. In helping the students develop any real understanding of the subject taught, the teachers will have to teach them how to think, how to make decision, and how to learn from their experiences both in and out of school. To do this, the teachers need to select the teaching strategies carefully so that they suit both their students and the subject matter they are teaching.
Jones & Idol (1990) stated that such strategies or approaches have in common an understanding that learners construct knowledge by making connections between their prior knowledge and new information, and analyze new learning activities to determine the most effective approach to achieve learning goals. Cognitive instruction seeks to facilitate learning by making students aware of their own mental processes and by providing direct instruction in thinking and learning strategies.
Nevertheless, the teachers may not find it easy to decide what teaching strategy to use for a particular lesson because the number of factors that should be considered is quite large. Having content knowledge is simply not enough to enable the teachers to teach effectively. The teachers must know how to engage the students in the learning process and know how to organize information so that others can learn it. How students learn is as important as what students learn because their learning experiences directly influence their willingness to engage in future learning and their future learning strategies. As a result, the requirements of the learners, the learning context, and the content must guide the teachers` selection of teaching strategies (Killen: vii-x).
In this paper, we, in group work, will present one of the very common teaching strategies, that is, problem solving. The discussion of this paper comprises introduction, theoretical framework of the strategy, the anticipation of the strategy, the strengths and weaknesses, and the implementation of problem solving as a teaching strategy in classroom activity.
B. Theoretical Frameworks
Many current views of problem solving, such as described in Keith Holyoak and Robert Morrison's Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning (2005) or Marsha Lovett's 2002 review of research on problem solving, have their roots in Gestalt theory or information processing theory.
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Gestalt Theory. The Gestalt theory of problem solving, described by Karl Duncker (1945) and Max Wertheimer (1959), holds that problem solving occurs with a flash of insight. Richard Mayer (1995) noted that insight occurs when a problem solver moves from a state of not knowing how to solve a problem to knowing how to solve a problem. During insight, problem solvers devise a way of representing the problem that enables solution. Gestalt psychologists offered several ways of conceptualizing what happens during insight: insight involves building a schema in which all the parts fit together, insight involves suddenly reorganizing the visual information so it fits together to solve the problem, insight involves restating a problem's givens or problem goal in a new way that makes the problem easier to solve, insight involves removing mental blocks, and insight involves finding a problem analog (i.e., a similar problem that the problem solver already knows how to solve). Gestalt theory informs educational programs aimed at teaching students how to represent problems.
Information Processing Theory. The information processing theory of problem solving, as described by Allen Newell and Herbert Simon (1972), is based on a human computer metaphor in which problem solving involves carrying out a series of mental computations on mental representations. The key components in the theory are as follows: the idea that a problem can be represented as a problem space—a representation of the initial state, goal state, and all possible intervening states—and search heuristics—a strategy for moving through the problem space from one state of the problem to the next. The problem begins in the given state; the problem solver applies an operator that generates a new state, and so on until the goal state is reached. For example, a common search heuristic is means-ends analysis, in which the problem solver seeks to apply an operator that will satisfy the problem-solver's current goal; if there is a constraint that blocks the application of the operator, and then a goal is set to remove the constraint, and so on. Information processing theory informs educational programs aimed at teaching strategies for solving problems.
1. The Definition of Problem and Problem Solving
A problem can be defined as any situation in which some information is known and other information is needed. The problem might be something that gives rise to doubt or uncertainty, or something that is hard to understand, or a difficult task or question, or inquiry that start from given condition to investigate facts or principles. Awhile, problem solving can be considered as the process of applying existing knowledge to a new or unfamiliar situation in order to gain new knowledge. According to Mayer and Wittrock, problem solving is “cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal when no solution method is obvious to the problem solver” (2006, p. 287). Thus problems solving is a form of inquiry learning. When used as a deliberate teaching strategy, problem solving can help students to release that the knowledge they have already gained can be applied to a new situations, and that this process can lead them to gain new knowledge.
2. The Distinction between Teaching Problem Solving and Problem Solving as a Teaching Strategy
It is important to distinguish between teaching problem solving and using problem solving as a teaching strategy. Teaching problem solving is exactly that-teaching students how to solve problems. Meanwhile, problem solving as a teaching strategy is a technique in which problems are used deliberately as a means of helping students to understand or gain insight into the subject they are learning. So, in the first thing the emphasis is on solving problems and the latter the emphasis is on learning about the subject through solving problems.
Quite clearly, the two concepts are closely related, and it is probably best to think of problem solving as a teaching strategy as being the broader concept that includes teaching problem solving. When problem solving is used as a teaching strategy, the emphasis should be on students learning about the subject, rather than simply learning to solve problems. The reason why this point is being stressed is that if we, teachers, simply teach students how to solve problems they may learn very little other than the sequence of steps they need to follow in order to solve a particular type of problem. There is considerable research evidence that students who are taught to solve problem with a “means-ends” approach can do so “with very little knowledge acquisition” (Owen&Sweller, !985, p.273).
There is some evidence to suggest that problem solving depends very heavily on domain-specific knowledge. It means that the ability to solve problems in a particular area is so dependent on specific knowledge relevant to that area that one would expect minimal, if any, transfer of problem-solving ability from one area to another. (Schuell, 1990)
In many classrooms, especially those of developing countries, the problem solving process may not be feasible because of factors beyond teachers’ control. However, this does not mean that learners in such countries should be disadvantaged from learning or acquiring skills that the problem-solving process offers. Learners can still attain such skills if teachers employ the problem-solving teaching approach. In this kind of teaching, teachers’ techniques, especially their questioning styles, can help learners develop critical and logical thinking, as well as the ability to generalize.
Helping students develop problem solving skills is a frequently cited goal of science educators. The National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), in its 1980 position statement, advocated that science teachers help students learn and think logically, specifying that "...high school laboratory and field activities should emphasize not only the acquisition of knowledge, but also problem solving and decision making" (1985:48).
Problem solving means many things to many people. For some, it includes an attitude or predisposition toward inquiry as well as the actual processes by which individuals attempt to gain knowledge. Usually, when teachers discuss problem solving on the part of pupils, they anticipate pupils will become involved with the thinking operations of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (considered as higher-level thinking skills). The American College Testing program has redesigned its college admissions test with a new emphasis on assessing higher-order thinking skills (EdLine,1989).
3. When Problem Solving as a Teaching Strategy
Teaching and learning strategies are the purposeful actions and thoughts learners engage in for understanding, storing, and remembering new information and skills. Some learning strategies are observable, as in note-taking or writing a plan for problem solution. Many learning strategies, however, are non observable because they are purely mental processes. Examples of non-observable strategies are monitoring comprehension or activating prior knowledge. Since learning strategies can be used with any learning task, including mathematics and language tasks, they have considerable potential for enhancing the academic achievement of linguistic minority students.
Three types of learning strategies are commonly discussed in the literature: metacognitive strategies, or the executive strategies that individuals use to plan for, monitor, or evaluate learning; cognitive strategies, the actual manipulation of learning materials by reorganization and grouping, elaboration or relating one new idea to another and relating new ideas to existing knowledge; and social-affective strategies, in which the learner calls on another person for assistance or works cooperatively with others on a common task (Pressley & Harris, 1990).
An important reason for having students solve problems is to help them gain insight that will enable them to understand the subject matter better and to look at it from different perspectives and so problem solving is an ideal strategy to use in relation to group work. To achieve the benefits of group work, the teachers need to encourage students to discuss with one another what they understand the problem to be, how they feel about the problem, and the various steps in their attempts to solve the problem. In short, the most appropriate times for the teachers to use problem solving as a teaching strategy are as follows:
• When the teachers want their students to gain a deep understanding of the subject matter, rather than just remembering bits of it.
• When the teachers want to develop their students` thinking and reasoning skills-that is, their ability to analyze situations, to apply their existing knowledge to new situations etc.
• When the teachers want to develop their students` problem solving skill- that is, their ability to assess and respond to new situations.
• When the teachers want to challenge their students intellectually.
• When the teachers want to encourage their students to take greater responsibility for their own learning.
• When the teachers want students to understand the relationship between what they are studying and the real world (the relationship between theory and practice)
• When the teachers want students` learning experiences to be varied and interesting.
C. Anticipation of problem
To use problem solving effectively as a teaching strategy you will need to develop certain teaching skills, just as the students will need to develop the thinking skills described previously. Fullerton (1992) suggests that you will also need to be able to engage in the following activities.
1. Formulating the problem
You must help the students to examine the problem from a number of perspectives so that they will understand exactly what the problem is.
2. Analyzing the problem
Before students try to solve a problem, you need to get them to break down the problem into its various components and assess the importance of each component.
3. Generating Ideas
When you present students with open-ended problems (rather than problems that have a specific answer), one of your major tasks will be to help students generate ideas or data that can be used for solving the problem. To do this you might :
• Help students to relate the problem situation to real situation
• Help students to develop or explore analogies that will lead them to creative solutions for the problem.
4. Evaluating ideas
When solving open-ended problems, students may have difficulty deciding on the relative merits of various ways of approaching the problem and/or the merits of various suggested solutions. You can help the students to select techniques for solving a problem, and to judge the merits of alternative solutions, by giving them specific criteria for making judgments. You could :
• Have students list all the available alternative, examining the strengths and weaknesses of each, and then selecting the one that fulfils the problems objectives best.
• Have students generate a list of ideas and evaluate each idea against explicit criteria, with all students having equal input into the selection of the final idea.
In solving any problems, it helps to have a working procedure. We might want to consider this four-step procedure.
Understand : before you can solve a problem you must first understand it. Read and re-read the problem carefully to find all the clues and determine what the question is asking you to find.
What is the known ?
What are the data ?
What is the condition ?
Plan : one you understand the question and the clues, it’s time to use your previous experience with similar problems to look for strategies and tools to answer the question.
Do you know a related problem ?
Try it : after deciding on a plan, you should try it and see what answer you come up with.
Can you see clearly that the step is correct.
Look back (reflect ) : once you tried it and found an answer.
Check result, argument, result differently and a glance.
When we use problem solving as the principal teaching strategy in a lesson, we are passing to students some of the responsibility for their own learning. If we have planned carefully, you will have created a situation in which the students can learn about the subject by solving the problem(s) that you have posed.
If the students work on problems individually, the teacher should expect them to:
Satisfy the students that they know what the real problem is before they try to solve it
Ask question if they are not clear about any points
Develop a plan for solving the problem before they jump into calculations or experimentation or research
Keep a written record of how they attempted to solve the problem and the result they obtained
Make brief notes of what they learned by solving the problem
If the students work in groups or pairs to solve problems, we should expect that they will do the things listed above and it addition:
Explain to one another what they understand about the problem and how it might be solved;
Co-operate with one another to complete the tasks and maximize their learning;
Explain their solutions to one another and show interest is one another’s explanations; and
Persist until they agree that they have solved the problem satisfactory.
If the students work on the problem as a whole-class activity, you should expect that they will:
Explain what they understand by the problem and how they attempted to solve it.
Listen to and try to understand, the ideas and explanations of other students;
Pose questions and ask for clarifications;
Comment on the ideas and solution offered by other students; and
Help to draw conclusions from the problem-solving experience.
D. Strengths and Weaknesses:
1. Strengths
When used effectively, problem solving has a new number of advantages over direct instruction. In summary, these advantages are as follows:
Problem solving provides a challenge for students, and they can derive great satisfactions from discovering new knowledge for themselves.
Problem solving engages students actively in learning.
Problem solving helps students to develop new knowledge for themselves and feel responsible for their own learning.
Problem solving teach students that their solutions should be explainable and just justifiable.
Problem solving can show students that our subject is a way of thinking and doing things that should make sense to students, not just to the teacher or the textbook author.
Problem solving can be fun and rewarding learning experience.
Problem solving can develop students` critical thinking skills and their ability to adapt to new learning situations.
Problem solving can help to keep alive students` natural curiosity.
Problem solving encourages students to talk about the concepts they are trying to understand.
Problem solving develops students` ability to make informed judgements.
Problem solving provides students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge and to see that their knowledge has some real world applications.
Real-life problems can help students to integrate the knowledge they gain fro studying several different subjects.
Problem solving can help students to develop qualities such as resourcefulness, independence, patience and tenacity.
Problem solving can show students the value of exploring alternative approaches, in contrast to finding the answer as quickly as possible.
Appropriately challenging problems can engage students in learning long after the formal lesson is over.
Problem solving helps increase retention and provides a sound foundation from which students can transfer their knowledge to other situations.
Problem solving can create three conditions that assist in subsequent retrieval and appropriate use of new information: activation of prior knowledge, similarity between the contexts in which information is learned and later applied, and opportunity to elaborate on that information.
Problem solving can help students to develop the confidence to try things even when they think they might make a mistake, and to keep trying when they do make mistakes.
Problem solving can give the teachers a better understanding of the abilities and special talents of their students.
2. Weaknesses
There are many occasions when we are teaching maybe more effective or efficient if we use techniques other than problem solving because it has the following limitation:
Unless the problems are motivating, students may see them simply as busywork.
Unless students are interested and believe that they can solve the problem, they may be reluctant to try
Appropriate problems take time to develop since each problem needs to be carefully structured to produce specific student learning outcomes.
Unless our students understand why they are attempting to solve a particular problem, they may not learn what we want them to learn.
E. Implementation
The implementation of problem solving strategy can be seen from using it through studying mathematics. At this studying, students should be able to solve problems encountered in the real world and to reason and talk about their solutions. In this approach to mathematics instruction, language plays a much larger role than has been the case in traditional computation-based programs. For example, students need good comprehension skills (both oral and reading) in order to understand a problem, and they also need good speaking skills in order to discuss the problem and explain their path to solution. Writing skills are also needed in mathematics if students are to write about their problem solutions (Dossey, 1989). The strategic approach generally recommended for mathematics problem solving is based on Polya’s model, which consists of understanding the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and looking back (Polya, 1957, 1973 in Chamot, A.U., & O'Malley, J.M. 1993). In addition to language skills, mathematics problem solving also requires a strategic approach to understanding and representing the problem, and making and carrying out a plan for its solution.
The important of following the problem solving steps of the Polya model in sequence is a highly effective approach to solving word problems (Pressley & associates, 1990). Specific learning strategies appropriate for each step of the model include elaboration of prior knowledge, selective attention or focusing on important information, evaluating the plan, and representing the problem pictorially (Chamot & O’Malley, 1993). Cooperation, or solving problems in small groups, is another strategy that has a positive effect on problem solving and on helping students develop metacognitive awareness of their own mathematical thinking. Benefits of solving problems cooperatively include sharing strategies, communicating mathematically, and developing skills needed for independent learning.
In addition to following specific problem solving steps, effective problem solvers maintain a reflective view of their own problem solving processes. They analyze related information, look for possible solutions, and check the accuracy of alternative solutions.
Such metacognitive knowledge and executive control over problem solving provides the student with flexible and autonomous control over the learning process. In addition to metacognitive control, an effective problem solver will brainstorm a variety of alternative plans or solution strategies, activate what has already been learned, try the plan out with the current problem, and evaluate its application to the solution. The student’s evaluation of the plan must be performed with respect to the original problem representation rather than to the simple computational procedures used to find the answer (Noddings, Gilbert-MacMillan, &Leitz, 1983).
The purpose of the representation step is to help students organize the data, define the problem and identify key issues. In this phase, we might ask students to:
frame the problem in their own words
define key terms and concepts
determine statements that accurately represent the givens of a problem
identify analogous problems
determine what information is needed to solve the problem
In the solution phase, one develops and then implements a coherent plan for solving the problem. As we help students with this phase, we might ask them to:
identify the general model or procedure they have in mind for solving the problem
set sub-goals for solving the problem
identify necessary operations and steps
draw conclusions
carry out necessary operations
In all cases, the more we get the students to articulate their own understandings of the problem and potential solutions, the more we can help them develop their expertise in approaching problems in our discipline.
A few different ways we can introduce a problem to students include:
demonstrate a problem solution by systematically explaining each step and its rationale
ask the students how they would approach solving the problem
ask the students to help we solve the problem by posing questions at key points in the process
have the students work together in small groups (3 to 5 students) to solve the problem, and then have the solution presented to the rest of the class (either by us or by a student in the group)
Students in problem-solving classes indicate that they appreciate:
clear step-by-step explanations
questions posed at key points in the solution
overviews and summaries of problem-solving approaches
opportunities to ask questions about problems and solutions
explicit links to similar problems
opportunities to interact with each other and with the instructor while working towards solving problems.
To make the students to become better at problem solving, the teacher needs to give them appropriate practice by doing the following activities:
a) Deciding what the teacher wants students to learn.
b) Selecting or developing appropriate problems.
c) Presenting the problems to students in a stimulating way so that they are encouraged to try to solve them.
d) Monitoring the students` progress and encouraging them to think about their problem-solving processes.
e) Helping students to understand how problem solving is helping them to learn about the subject they are studying.
Teachers` Activities Developed during Problem Solving Lesson
To use problem solving effectively as a teaching strategy the teacher will need to develop certain teaching skills by engaging in the following activities ( Killen, :
a) Formulating the problem by highlighting the parameters of the problem and helping the students view the problem from new perspectives.
b) Analyzing the problem by assisting students to identify the major elements in a problem and assisting students to identify how the components of a problem interact.
c) Generating ideas by helping students to relate the problem situation to real situations with which they are familiar and helping students to develop or explore analogies that will lead them to creative solutions for the problem.
d) Evaluating ideas by having students list all the available alternatives and having students generate a list of ideas and evaluate each idea against explicit criteria.
F. Conclusion
A problem can be defined as any situation in which some information is known and other information is needed.
Problem solving can be considered as the process of applying existing knowledge to a new or unfamiliar situation in order to gain new knowledge.
Thus problems solving is a form of inquiry learning
Learners can still attain such skills if teachers employ the problem-solving teaching approach
In this kind of teaching, teachers’ techniques, especially their questioning styles, can help learners develop critical and logical thinking, as well as the ability to generalize.
When teachers discuss problem solving on the part of pupils, they anticipate pupils will become involved with the thinking operations of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
The American College Testing program has redesigned its college admissions test with a new emphasis on assessing higher-order thinking skills (EdLine, 1989)
The purpose of the representation step is to help students organize the data, define the problem and identify key issues
In all cases, the more we get the students to articulate their own understandings of the problem and potential solutions, the more we can help them develop their expertise in approaching problems in our discipline.
When we use problem solving as the principle teaching strategy in a lesson, we are passing to students some of the responsibility for their own learning.
When used effectively, problem solving has a new number of advantages over direct instruction
Appropriate problems take time to develop since each problem needs to be carefully structured to produce specific student learning outcomes.
References
Chamot, A.U., & O'Malley, J.M. 1993. The CALLA handbook: How to implement the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Duncker, K. (1945). On problem solving. Psychological Monographs, 58(5), Whole No. 270.
Jones, B.F., & Idol, L. 1990 Introduction. In B.F. Jones & L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction (pp. 1-13). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Holyoak,, K. J., & Morrison, R. G. (Eds.). (2005). The Cambridge handbook of thinking and reasoning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mayer, R. E., & Wittrock, R. C. (2006). Problem solving. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology(2nd ed., pp. 287–304). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Noddings, N., Gilbert-MacMillan, K., & Leitz, 5. 1983, April. What do individuals gain in small group mathematical problem solving? Paper presented at the annual meetings of educational Research Association, Montreal.
Pressley, M. & Associates. 1990. Cognitive strategy instruction that really improves children’s academic performance. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
APPENDIX A
WORD PROBLEM PROCEDURE
The CALLA Mathematics curriculum has been supplemented with a Word Problem Procedure (WPP) which Spanos (Arlington Public Schools,, 1991) developed for use in his high school CALLA math class. This procedure is in the form of a one-page worksheet and contains the following 11 steps:
1. Choose a partner or partners. Write your names above.
2. Choose a problem. Write the problem in the space below.
3. Select one student to read the problem aloud. Re-read the problem if necessary. Together, discuss the vocabulary in the problem and circle any words you don’t understand. Write the words below.
4. Find the meanings of the words by using a bilingual dictionary, asking your partner(s), or asking your teacher.
5. Write what the problem asks you to find below.
6. Write the operation(s) you need to solve the problem below:
Add? Subtract? Multiply? Divide?
7. Solve the problem in the space below.
8. Check your answer.
9. Explain your answer to your partner(s). Write your explanation below.
10. Explain your answer to the class.
11. Write a similar problem on the back of this page.
Steps 1-4 correspond to Step 1 of Polya’s method (Understanding the Problem), Steps 5-6 correspond to Step 2 of Polya’s method (Devising a Plan), Step 7 to Polyas Step 3 (Carrying out the Plan), and Steps 8-11 to Polyas Step 4 (Looking Back). The steps in the procedure are analyzed in the curriculum guide in terms of the learning strategies that are involved, e.g.,
Steps 1-6 are planning steps and therefore invite metacognitive strategies, while Steps 7 and 8 require students to manipulate the mathematical content and therefore involve cognitive strategies. The entire Word Problem Procedure calls on students to use social affective strategies by asking for clarification and working cooperatively on the problem solution. Finally, students use academic language related to mathematics as they read, discuss, write individual explanations of how the problem was solved, and explain to their partners and the class how they arrived at the answer. In this way, the WPP embodies the CALLA philosophy of integrating content, academic language, and learning strategies.
APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR
THINK-ALOUD AND RESTROSPECTIVE
INTERVIEWS
STUDENT INTERVIEW GUIDE
Part I: Warm-Up - Background Information (2 minutes)
1. Introduce self and ask student’s name.
2. What is your native language?
3. What country are you from?
4. How long have you been in the U.S.?
5. Did you go to school in your country? What grade did you finish?
6. Explain purpose of interview.
Part II: Think-Aloud Warm-up (3 minutes)
1. Here’s an easy problem. Can you tell me what you are thinking while you solve it?
Student is given a sheet of paper with this problem:
53
-28
2. (If student needs more practice with thinking aloud). Do this problem, too:
15
x3
If student falls silent while working, say TELL ME WHAT YOU’RE THINKING.
Part III: Word Problem Think-Aloud (5 minutes)
1. Start with Word Problem 1. If the student is completely unable to handle it, use Word Problem 2. Say, “Okay, why don’t we try this problem instead.”
2. Script: “I’d like you to try to solve this problem.” (Hand Word Problem 1 to student.) “Here’s a pencil and a calculator, if you want to use it. You can write or put anything on this paper to help you solve the problem. Why don’t you read the problem aloud first, and then talk aloud while you solve the problem.”
Say TELL ME WHAT YOU’RE THINKING. WHAT STRATEGIES ARE YOU GOING TO USE? If student doesn’t understand, say JUST TELL ME WHAT YOU’RE THINKING. WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO DO?
If, in spite of prompting, student does not want to talk while solving the problem, ask after he or she has completed the problem: “How did you get that answer? Can you tell me what you did?” Have the student go back through each step and describe what he or she did.
WORD PROBLEM 1
Carlos and Gloria work at McDonald’s at 4238 Wilson Boulevard. Carlos works 8 hours per week and gets $4.50 per hour. Gloria works 6 hours per week and gets $6.15 per hour. Who works more? Who gets more money per week? How much more?
WORD PROBLEM 2 (ALTERNATE)
In 1989, there were 36 students in the HILT math class. In 1990, there were 27 students. Which year had more students? How many more students were there in that year?
Part IV: Learning Strategy Discussion (5 minutes)
Say WHAT STRATEGIES DID YOU USE? if student does not understand, ask WHAT DID YOU DO TO HELP YOU SOLVE THE PROBLEM? if student is not able to generate answers, ask the following questions in sequence:
1. “How did you feel about solving the problem?” (If necessary, ‘Were you nervous? Interested?)
2. “Have you solved other problems like this one?” (if yes, “Did you remember how you did another problem to help with this one?”)
3. “Did you understand the problem right away?” (If no, “What did you do about it?”)
4. “Did you make a plan of what to do?” (If yes, “Tell me about your plan.”)
5. “Did you look for important words to solve the problem?” (If yes, “What were they?”)
6. “Were there any words you didn’t understand?” (If yes,
“What were they? Could you solve the problem anyway without those words?”)
7. “How did you decide which numbers to use?”
8. “Did you cross out, or not use, information that you didn’t need?” (If yes, “What was it? What didn’t you need?”)
9. “How did you decide which operation to use?”
10. “Did you make a picture in your head or draw a picture or table?” (If yes, “Can you show/tell me about it?”)
11. “Did you check your answer? (If yes, “How did you do that?”)
THANK YOU FOR YOUR WORK. YOU DID A REALLY GOOD JOB.
APPENDIX C
CALLA TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE
Teacher Name ____________________Date____________________
1. Check which of the following math strands you have covered this year:
_______ Whole Numbers
_______ Fractions
_______ Time & Money
_______ Ratio & Percent
_______ Geometry
_______ Decimals
_______ Graphs, Charts, Statistics, &
_______ Probability
_______ Other (Describe_______________________________ )
2. Check the average amount of time spent on word problems:
_____ once a week _____ 4-5 times a week
_____ 2-3 times a week _____ part of every period
3. Do you think it is necessary to teach learning strategies directly (i.e., to name the strategy and tell why it is important)? __ Yes __ No
Why or why not?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
4. Which learning strategies do you teach directly (D) or indirectly (I)?
__ D __ I Elaborating prior knowledge
__ D __ I Cooperation
__ D __ I Graphic Organizers
__ D __ I Classifying/grouping
__ D __ I Making inferences/predicting
__ D __ I Summarizing
__ D __ I Using images/visualizing
5. Do you teach problem-solving strategies? __ Yes __ No
6. If yes, check which strategies you use*:
__ Finding needed information
__ Finding extra information
__ Cooperative learning
__ Guessing & checking
__ Choosing operations
__ Making organized lists/tables
__ Drawing pictures/diagrams
__ Finding patterns
__ Writing simple problems
__ Solving simpler problems
__ Using logical reasoning
__ Working backward
__ Writing number sentences
7. Additional comments _____________________________________
________________________________________________________
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SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-61374515214740763742012-10-22T18:37:00.001-07:002012-10-22T18:37:27.788-07:00BILLINGUALISM AND POLYGLOSSIA<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3d85c6;"><b>Before we discuss further definition of Polyglossia, we shall consider the related term in which has close relation to the topic will be discussed. We are going to start with the term Diglossia. </b></span></div>
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<span style="color: #3d85c6;"><b> 1. DIGLOSSIA</b></span></div>
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<span style="color: #3d85c6;"><b> 1.1 What is diglossia? </b></span></div>
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<span style="color: #3d85c6;"><b>The French term diglossie was first coined (as a translation of Greek, ‘bilingualism’) by the Greek linguist, Ioannis Psycharis. Charles A. Ferguson in his article “Diglossia” in the journal Word (1959) intensively defines diglossia as follows:
“DIGLOSSIA is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any section of the community for ordinary conversation (Ferguson, 1959 in Wardhaugh, 1986)”
Ferguson’s definition considers diglossia as a kind of bilingualism in a given society in which one of the languages is “High” variety, i.e. has high prestige, and another of the languages is “Low” variety, i.e. has low prestige. “High” variety is usually the written language, whereas “Low” variety is the spoken language. In formal situations, “High” variety is used; in informal situations, “Low” variety is used (Wardhaugh, 1986).
According to Ferguson (1959) in Hudson (2002), “High” variety and “Low” variety are always close genetically-related language. On the other hands, Fishman (1967) in Hudson (2002) introduces the notion that diglossia could be extended to situations found in many societies where forms of two genetically unrelated (or at least historically distant ) languages occupy the H and L niches, such that one of the languages (e.g. Latin in medieval Europe), is used for religious, educational, literacy and other such prestigious domains, while another language (in the case of medieval Europe, the vernacular languages of that era) is rarely used for such purposes, being only employed for more informal, primarily spoken domains (Hudson, 2002).
Because of the different notions of diglossia proposed by Ferguson (1959) and Fishman (1967), studies on diglossia have differed with regards to the question of which cases should be considered to constitute diglossia and which should not (Myhill, 2009). According to the preference of the researcher, the reference of the term diglossia may be limited to cases in which H and L are considered to be versions of the same language and H is not the everyday language of anyone in the same country (e.g. Standard Arabic (H) vs. Colloquial Arabic (L) in e.g. Syria), or it may also be used to refer to cases in which H is spoken as the everyday language of some geographically or ethnically distinct group in the same country (e.g. Italian (H) vs. Sicilian (L) in Italy or Standard English (H) vs. Black English (L) in the United States), or it may even include cases in which H and L are different languages (e.g. Urdu (H) vs. Punjabi (L) in Pakistan) (Myhill, 2009).
1.2 Characteristic Features of Diglossia
Research on diglossia has concentrated on a number of variables and important questions of the characteristic features of diglossia, such as function, prestige, literary heritage, acquisition, standardization, stability, grammar, lexicon, and phonology of H and L varieties (Schiffman, 2001).
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1. Function
The functional differentiation of discrepant varieties in a diglossia is fundamental, thus distinguishing it from bilingualism. H and L are used for different purposes, and native speakers of the community would find it odd if anyone used H in an L domain or L in an H domain.
2. Prestige
In most diglossias examined, H was more highly valued (had greater prestige) than was L. The H variety is that of ‘great’ literature, canonical religious texts, ancient poetry, of public speaking, of pomp and circumstance. The L-variety is felt to be less worthy, corrupt, ‘broken’, vulgar, undignified, etc.
3. Literary Heritage
In most diglossic languages, the literature is all in H-variety; no written uses of L exist, except for ‘dialect’ poetry, advertising, or ‘low’ restricted genres. In most diglossic languages, the H-variety is thought to be the language; the L-variety is sometimes denied to exist, or is claimed to be only spoken by lesser mortals (servants, women, children). In some traditions (e.g. Shakespeare’s plays), L-variety would be used to show certain characters as rustic, comical, uneducated, etc.
4. Acquisition
L-variety is the variety learned first; it is the mother tongue, the language of the home. H-variety is acquired through schooling. Where linguists would therefore insist that the L-variety is primary, native scholars see only the H-variety as the language.
5. Standardization
H is strictly standardized; grammars, dictionaries, canonical texts, etc exist for it, written by native grammarians. L is rarely standardized in the traditional sense, or if grammars exist, is written by outsiders.
6. Stability
Diglossias are generally stable, persisting for centuries or even millennia. Occasionally L-varieties gain domains and displace the H-variety, but H only displaces L if H is the mother tongue of elite, usually in a neighboring polity.
7. Grammar
The grammars of H are more complex than the grammars of L-variety. They have more complex tense systems, gender systems, agreement, and syntax than L-variety.
8. Lexicon
Lexicon is often somewhat shared, but generally there is differentiation; H has vocabulary that L lacks, and vice-versa.
9. Phonology
Two kinds of systems are discerned. One is where H and L share the same phonological elements, but H may have more complicated morphophonemics. Or, H is a special subset of the L-variety inventory. (But speakers often fail to keep the two systems separate.) A second type is one where H has contrasts that L lacks, systematically substituting some other phoneme for the lacking contrast; but L may ‘borrow’ elements as tatsamas, using the H-variety contrast in that particular item.
1.3 TYPES OF DIGLOSSIA
There are some types of Diglossia. Joshua Fishman classifies it into two. They are Biglossia and Digraphia. Biglossia can be defined as Diglossia involving two completely separate languages, where the varieties in question are varieties of different languages. Another one is Digraphia. It refers to the use of more than one writing system for the same language (H is for written use, L is for conversational use). Digraphia can be synchronic, meaning that these writing systems are used at the same time for the same language, or diachronic, meaning that the writing system used has changed over time, one writing system succeeding another over time. The best example of synchronic Digraphia is Serbian. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet and an adapted Latin alphabet are both widely used in Serbia in a large variety of contexts and most Serbian speakers are able to read and write in both. Some authorities consider Japanese to be a case of synchronic Digraphia, as it has three different scripts. Other authorities disagree, however, pointing out that all three scripts are part of the same writing system, and have a defined role to play within that system. It is not always easily achieved writing an entire text in three different versions, one in each script. In Serbian this is always possible. An element of synchronic Digraphia is present in many languages not using the Latin script, in particular in text messages and when typing on a computer which does have the facility to represent the usual script for that language. In such cases, Latin script is often used, although systems of transcription are often not standardized. In Diachronic Digraphia, there are many examples where a language used to be written in a script that was replaced later. Examples are Romanian (which originally used Cyrillic then changed to Latin); Turkish (Arabic then Latin), and many languages of former Soviet Central Asia, which abandoned the Cyrillic script after the dissolution of the USSR.
Pauwels classifies Diglossia into three; they are Interlingual diglossia, Intralingual diglossia, and Diglossia as a ‘continuum’. Interlingual diglossia is diglossia with two different languages while Intralingual diglossia is diglossia where both derived from same language. Diglossia as a ‘continuum’ is ranging from Rigid Diglossia (clearly defined codes/situations for use) to Fluid Diglossia (lots of overlapping of use).
Fasold classifies Diglossia into three; they are Double-Nested Diglossia, Polyglossia, and Code-switching. In Double-Nested Diglossia, there are two Hs and one L (‘lower’ H acts as H and L). In other words, it is subdiglossic situations within major diglossic situations with distinctive difference in varieties of a language (or languages) and their functions. For example, a village situation in India, north of Delhi. The high variety is Hindi and the low variety is called (by Gumperz) Khalapur. Khalapur is spoken by all villagers and is always used in local interactions. Hindi is learned in school or by having lived in the cities. Better educated and socially prominent villagers speak Hindi in matters relating to commerce and politics (ie, outside village matters). Polyglossia is the coexistence of multiple languages in the same area. Polyglossia is also defined as the use of three or more varieties in a community with a function differentiation, a shared language value system and common norms. And Code Switching can be defined as a linguistics term denoting the concurrent use of more than one language, or language variety, in conversation (2 languages used in one situation/sentence). The term code-switching is used when examining how people speak in different situations. Code is thought of as a more neutral way of expressing dialect and there are generally thought to be two codes, a prestige code and an everyday code. The term diglossia is also used to describe a person’s ability to switch from one dialect or code to another. The subtle difference between code-switching and diglossia is that diglossia is thought to be a more intentional changing of dialect due to situation and code-switching is perceived as a more subconscious change. In a diglossic situation, some topics and situations are better suited to one language over another. Joshua Fishman proposes a domain-specific code-switching model (later refined by Blom and Gumperz) wherein bilingual speakers choose which code to speak depending on where they are and what they are discussing. For example, a child who is a bilingual Spanish-English speaker might speak Spanish at home and English in class, but Spanish at recess.
1.4 POLYGLOSSIA
Polyglossia is defined as the use of three or more varieties in a community with a function differentiation, a shared language value system and common norms. Polyglossia is defined as the coexistence of multiple languages in the same area. (http://www.wordnik.com/words/polyglossia)
Basically polyglossia situations involve two contrasting varieties (high and low) but in general it refers to communities that regularly use more than two languages. Polyglossia is a part of diglossia but in polyglossia it involves more languages used.
2. Bilingualism
2.1 What is bilingualism?
The term bilingualism is defined as the ability to use and to speak two languages. Language cannot be divorced from the context in which it is used. It is not produced in a vacuum; it is enacted in changing dramas. Every kind of communication includes one speaker, one canal (the topic) and one listener. Functional bilingualism moves into language production across the encyclopedia of everyday contexts and events. It concerns when, where and with who people use these two languages. For instances:
- A child who is beginning to talk, speaking English to one parent and Welsh to the other.
- A Danish immigrant in New Zealand who has not had contact with Danish for the last 40 years.
- A schoolchild from an Italian immigrant family in the USA who increasingly uses English both at home and outside but whose older relatives address him in Italian only.
- A young graduate who has been studying French for eleven years.
- A personal interpreter of an important public figure.
- The Turkish wife of a Turkish immigrant in Germany who can converse orally in German but cannot read or write it.
- A Japanese airline pilot who uses English for most of his professional communication.
- A fervent Catalanist who uses Catalan at home and work, but is exposed to Spanish in the media etc and is fully conversant in both.
2.2 Describing Individual Bilingualism
Individual Bilingualism can be described in terms of:
1. AGE: This can be classified into two; they are early bilingualism and late bilingualism. Late bilingualism is defined in contrast to early bilingualism, because late bilingualism is developed after the critical period for language learning. In such cases, it is thought that when people acquire their second language through immersion in a community that speaks it, implicit memory plays more of a role, whereas when they do so solely through formal classroom studies, explicit memory is more involved.
2. CONTEXT: This can be classified into two; they are natural/ascribed bilingualism and achieved/secondary bilingualism.
3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SIGN AND MEANING: This can be classified into three; they are coordinated bilingualism, subordinate bilingualism, and compound bilingualism. In coordinated bilingualism, children develop two parallel linguistic systems, so that for any one word, the child has two signifiers and two signifieds. One situation in which a child may develop coordinated bilingualism is when the two parents have different mother tongues and each parent speaks only his or her own mother tongue to the child. In response, the child constructs two separate linguistic systems and can handle each of them easily. Another such situation is when relatively young children who have already mastered their mother tongue are adopted by parents who speak a different language. Once again, the distinction between the two languages is crystal-clear for the child. A sub-group of the latter is the subordinate bilingual, which is typical of beginning second language learners. In compound bilingualism, children have only one signified for two signifiers and so cannot detect the conceptual differences between the two languages. Compound bilingualism is what occurs when both parents are bilingual and both parents speak to the child in both languages indiscriminately. The child will grow up to speak both languages effortlessly and without an accent, but will never master all the subtleties of either of them. In other words, the child will not really have a mother tongue.
4. ORDER AND CONSEQUENCE: This can be classified into three; they are incipient, ascendant bilingualism, and recessive bilingualism. The term passive or recessive bilinguals refer to bilinguals who are gradually losing competence in one language, usually because of disuse. As the term “recessive” seems to have negative connotations, we will use the term ‘passive bilinguals’ to describe this group of bilinguals. For example, a Dutch migrant in Australia may find himself isolated from the Dutch speaking community as his daily encounters are with English speaking Australians. Over time, his proficiency level in Dutch may deteriorate due to the long period of non-use.
5. COMPETENCE: This can be classified into two; they are maximalist/ minimalist views and semilingualism. The issue of bilinguals who appear to have limited level of proficiency in both first and second language has dominated some discussions on the issue of degree of bilingualism. The term semilingualism was first used by Hansegard (1968, cited in Baker 2006: 9) to refer to Finnish minority students in Sweden who lack proficiency in both their languages. Hansegard described semilingualism in terms of deficit in six language competences:
- Size of vocabulary
- Correctness of language
- Unconscious processing of language (automatism)
- Language creation (neologization)
- Mastery of the functions of language (e.g. emotive, cognitive)
- Meanings and imagery
According to these parameters, a semilingual is both quantitatively and qualitatively deficient in comparison to monolinguals, and semilingualism has been blamed for the low academic achievement of minority children. Over the years, the term has accumulated pejorative connotations and researchers who invoked the use of this concept have been widely rebutted for ignoring the socio-political concerns implicit in the existence of semilinguals. Many authors argued that semilingualism is rooted in an environment which is not conducive to ongoing bilingualism, where the speakers were socially, politically and economically disadvantaged. Therefore, semilingualism is a situation which is engineered by the environment and not a consequence of bilingualism since a monolingual in the same environment would have faced the same degree of struggle in their academic endeavours. Researchers who highlight the correlation of semilingualism to poor academic achievement without carefully separating the symptoms from the cause only serve to perpetuate the negative stereotype of minority children. Equally critical is how this perception translates into educational policies and curriculum for minority children, though the term semilingualism is not fashionable anymore, the idea of low achieving bilinguals who are linguistically competent neither in the first language nor in the second language is still discussed, albeit under a different label. Cummins (1994) acknowledges that labeling someone as a ‘semilingual’ is highly negative and may be detrimental to children’s learning, and proposes an alternative label ‘limited bilingualism’ to describe the same condition.
6. USE/FUNCTION: reflect the view that the language is not an abstract entity, but a tool employed for taking part in acts of communication. It means the ability of a person to use two or more languages as a means of communication in most situations and to switch from one language to the other if necessary.
7. ATTITUDE: Consciousness of Bilingualism
Attitudes are more accessible to observation in the context of societal bilingualism, as for example in the case of bilinguals among minority groups, where it is easier to notice that cultural, societal and motivational factors can influence the group’s maintenance or loss bilingualism.
2.3 Bilingual Patterns
The ways in which peoples can become bilingual are:
1. Immigration. It involves leaving the country of origin in order to settle, once and for all, in a ‘host’ country
2. Migration. People moved across frontiers in search of work and better living condition
3. Close contact with other linguistics groups is contact between members of different language groups. It may be brought about by urbanization or by internal migration and bilingualism is likely to be found among children as well as adults
4. Schooling. Here, Education can play a very important role in making children bilingual. Education system may deliberately be geared towards fostering bilingualism
5. Growing up in a bilingual family. The children came from families where one parent spoke the language of the wider community and the other parent a ‘foreign language’.
2.4 Types of Bilinguals
Skutnabb-Kangas (1984a) suggests a classification of the world’s bilinguals into four groups. She identifies the group as follows:
1. Elite bilinguals. These are peoples who have freely chosen to become so (example, because they want to work or study abroad), and the children who belong to families who change their country of residence relatively often or who are sent to be educated abroad.
2. Children from linguistic majority. These are children who learn another language (example, that a minority group ) at school, such as in immersion programmers or in foreign language classes
3. Children from bilingual families. These are children whose parents have different mother tongues. Bilingualism will be desirable because there are internal family pressures requiring the child to communicate in the language of parent (s).
4. Children from linguistics minorities. These children have parents who belong to a linguistic minority; they are under intense external pressure to learn language of the majority, particularly if the language of the minority is not officially recognized.
2.5 The Relationship between Bilingualism and Diglossia (Joshua Fishman)
BILINGUALISM AND DIGLOSSIA:
• Occurs when definite roles (of prestige) are established in a society
• Everyone understands both (generally)
DIGLOSSIA WITHOUT BILINGUALISM:
• In past or in less developed countries with great social divide
• Each group doesn’t fully understand the other but have no need to
BILINGUALISM WITHOUT DIGLOSSIA:
• In societies with social unrest or change (e.g. immigrant influx in Western society during industrialization era)
• Taught native language for work – this used at home and their native language bought to work
• ‘Pidgin’ versions of both languages; inevitable language shift
NEITHER BILINGUALISM NOR DIGLOSSIA:
• In small, isolated communities (but rare) with no social hierarchy or immigration
• Still words people don’t recognize (e.g. words used by young people to old people).
Conclusion
In conclusion, diglossia is a situation where, in a given society, there are two languages or varieties of a language, one of high prestige (known as H), which is generally used by the government and in formal texts, and one of low prestige (known as L), which is usually the spoken vernacular tongue. H and L can be either close genetically-related language or two genetically unrelated (or at least historically distant) languages. It is important to note from the outset that diglossia is different from that bilingualism. The key difference is that in a bilingual situation certain individuals (communities, etc.) will use Language A, while other individuals (communities, etc.) will use Language B, but everyone will use the same language for all situations--writing, job interviews, dinner table chats, etc.
References
Hudson, A. (2002) Outline of a Theory of Diglossia in International Journal of the Sociology of Language – www.international .ucla.edu.
Lubliner, C. (2002) Replection on Diglossia in International Journal of the Sociology of Language – www.international .ucla.edu.
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SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-11460418545773442912012-10-22T18:15:00.002-07:002012-10-22T18:15:54.153-07:00LANGUAGE AND POWER IN SOCIAL CLASS, POLITICS AND ADVERTISING<div style="text-align: justify;">
1. Rationale
Language and Power is about how language works to maintain and change power relations in contemporary society, and how understanding these processes can enable people to resist and change them. Both of these terms are closely link to each others. The language used by some people can show the power of them and the person who has power will influence the society by his/her language. For example, the second precident of Indonesia Soeharto using “ken” on his language, he prefers to say “menekanken” instead of saying “menekankan”. People then follow his way of saying the syllable “ken” because Soeharto has a power. The power of Soeharto influence the society.
2. Discussion.
Language and Power in relation to the Social Class
The main topic that will be explained is the relation between language and power and the social class and the dimensions of the power of language. The social class is economic or cultural arrangements of groups in society. In the social sciences, social class is often discussed in terms of 'stratification’. Further, the most basic class distinction is between the powerful and the powerless. The more upper classes have the more power. Social classes with a great deal of power are usually viewed as "the elites" within their own societies.
Cody (2002) distinguished social class by inequalities in such areas as power, authority, wealth, working and living conditions, life-styles, life-span, education, religion, and culture. The social class here is about the hierarchical arrangement of individuals of a culture that is divided into the division of powers within a society.
According to Weber, social class can be divided into three classes, those are upper class, middle class, and lower class. The upper class is the group of people at the top of social hierarchy. The member of this class is commonly having a great power to control the society and also can influence the policy among the society. Having power means that they have access to power through the state, religious orders, etc. Middle class is the people in the middle of a societal hierarchy (falls between the upper and the middle class). The measurement of this class varies significantly between cultures. For example, in United States, a person whose primary income is employed in a blue collar job is considered as middle class. In United Kingdom, people having a good education, owning a family house, and holding a professional post are considered as middle class. Further, the lower class can roughly be considered as those employed in lower job (can be measured in skills, educations, and incomes). Often, the term is used to refer to the unemployment. This people in this class also can be considered as those who spend money primarily for sustenance rather than for lifestyle.
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In Bali society, the social class is appeared as a custom for the society. The social class in Bali is based on the theory of Varna which means people stratification based on their professions. The concept of Varna is expanded into the concept of Wangsa. The Wangsa in Bali is not about profession. Instead, it is just used as the “marks” of family heredity. Wangsa can be divided into four: Brahmana, Ksatria, Weisya and Sudra.
In relation to power, social class among a population results different powers. It means that, every class in a society (upper, middle, and lower, or Wangsa in Bali) has its own degree of power. The upper class tends to have greater power compared to the lower one. It happens because the upper is hierarchically the highest “rank” in the society.
The power is also related to the language use in the community. It is a tendency that people in “lower” class will use the more polite language if they speak to the people in “higher” class. It is done to show the respect to the person in “higher” class. An example can be taken from the use of language in Balinese community. As stated before, the Wangsa in Bali is taken as a custom. So that, the language used is also influenced. There is a custom that the people in Sudra, Wesia, and Ksatria will use the more polite language if they speak to the Brahmana. If, for example, a Sudra talk to the Brahmana, he has to use the Bahasa Alus Singgih (the most polite Balinese language) and it is culturally allowed that the Brahman replies it by using Bahasa Kepara (Language used in daily informal conversation).
For example:
There is a Sudra (Wayan Degeg who are younger than Pedanda) comes to Pedanda’s house asking a good day to build a house.
Wayan Degeg : Om, Swastyastu. Ratu Pedanda, niki titiang tangkil wenten sane pacang tunasang titiang.
Pedanda : Mai, mai malu negak. Uling dija ragana? apa ane lakar tunasang?
Wayan Degeg : Titiang saking Banyupoh. Titiang jagi nunas galah becik santukan titiang jagi negakang kubu.
Pedanda : O ne ada dewasa melah anggen negakang kubu …
According to the example, it can be said that the language used by the Brahmana is allowed culturally. It is because the Brahmana (who is considered having the highest “rank” in Balinese culture) has the power to do so and he has a role and status as the pries, and also his age was older than the Sudra. It means that, the Brahmana has right to talk in Bahasa Kepara to Wayan Degeg. In contrast, the Sudra has the obligation to talk politely to the Brahmana since he has no power to talk using the “impolite” language.
Interestingly, the power in Bali is not always affected by the level of Wangsa. It also appears with the level of intimacy, the age, relation, etc. for the example, there is a Ksatria (Agung, 29.) do a conversation with a Sudra (Kadek Che, 33.) they are close to each other, and they have known each other since they were teenager.
Agung : Bli Dek, kengken kabare?
Kadek Che : Nah amonean dogen Gung kanggoang, men Gung kengken, seger?mara ya inget mlali mai...
Agung : hehehe, biasa Bli dadi nak sibuk hehee, seger Bli, ne mlali kejep dogen nak lakar ka Alasangker mli poh, kadonga ngelewatin singgah dadine.
Kadek Che : o...men nyen to kajak? Mai kunden negak malu dini, pang sing ditu jangkak-jongkok.
Agung : Pang ba Bli, kejep gen ba, kar ka Alasangker be jani, nyan dimulihne singgah bin.
Kadek Che : nah, adeng-adeng gwen Gung...
The common understanding about Wangsa and language use in Bali is that the Sudra will never use the Bahasa Kepara to talk to the Ksatria. However, in this conversation, Kadek Che used the Bahasa Kepara to Agung. From this example it can be said that, the power and the language used appears in the conversation is not only restricted by the social class of the participants. There are some other factors that affect the use of power and language in the conversation. The power and the language used is also appears in different conditions or context in which it can be related to Hymes theory that he refers it as S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G Models. (1) Setting and Scene: the physical circumstances of a speech act. Meanwhile, Scene is the "psychological setting" or "cultural definition" of a scene, like the range of formality and sense seriousness. (2) Participants: The participants are the audiences or those who involve in the speech situation. (3) Ends: It is the purposes, goals, and outcomes of the conversation. (4) Act Sequence: It is the order or plot of the event in which the conversation appears. (5) Key: Cues that establish the "tone, manner, or spirit" of the speech act. It can be establish through the intonation, some emphasizing of telling something, or the gesture and movement. (6) Instrumentalities: Forms and styles of speech. Using the many form dialect features or the use of standard grammatical form. (7) Norms: Social rules governing the event and the participants' actions and reaction. (8) Genre: The kind of speech act or event or the kind of story.
In accordance to powers, the S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G model can be used to explain the appearance of power in language. (1) Setting and scene: The different setting of the speech can result the different power. For example, a teacher speaking in front of the class may have “power” since he is a teacher for his students. However, in the house he cannot use the power as the teacher for his children. (2) Participants: the teacher may speak to the students in high tone. However, if the teacher talk to the principle, it is impossible for him to use high tone since the principle has the higher power than him. (3) Ends: the purpose of why to use the language and how the power influences the language because of the purpose of using the language. (4) Act sequences: ones may remains silent in a discussion since he has no right to talk about the discussion. However, as the sequence runs and it turns into a discussion that he expert in, then the power can appear since he has right to do so. (5) Key: key is about the intonation, person who has power may talk in high intonation to his subordinate and his subordinate has no right to speak in high intonation. (6) Instrumentalities: people in the “lower” class tend to use the more polite form of language when talking to the “higher” one since he has no power that allows him to use the less polite one. (7) Norm: it is related to the culture of how the power can affect language. For example, the culture in Bali allows Pedanda to speak in Bahasa Kepara to speak to his fellows. (8) Genre: people will use his power if the genre of the conversation allows them use it in an appropriate way.
Language and Power in relation to the politics
Besides the social context, language and power also occupied in the politics that the command of language becomes a means of power: as political rhetoric and demagogy, as ideology and bedazzlement, as seduction through words, as “persuasion”. For instance, the first president of Indonesia, Soekarna, on his speech about attacking Malaysia
” Kalau kita lapar itu biasa
Kalau kita malu itu juga biasa
Namun kalau kita lapar atau malu itu karena Malaysia, kurang ajar!
Kerahkan pasukan ke Kalimantan hajar cecunguk Malayan itu!
Pukul dan sikat jangan sampai tanah dan udara kita diinjak-injak oleh Malaysian keparat itu
Doakan aku, aku kan berangkat ke medan juang sebagai patriot Bangsa, sebagai martir Bangsa dan sebagai peluru Bangsa yang tak mau diinjak-injak harga dirinya.
Serukan serukan keseluruh pelosok negeri bahwa kita akan bersatu untuk melawan kehinaan ini kita akan membalas perlakuan ini dan kita tunjukkan bahwa kita masih memiliki Gigi yang kuat dan kita juga masih memiliki martabat.
Yoo...ayoo... kita... Ganjang...
Ganjang... Malaysia
Ganjang... Malaysia
Bulatkan tekad
Semangat kita badja
Peluru kita banjak
Njawa kita banjak
Bila perlu satoe-satoe!”
This power of language extends from large political contexts, from the manner of speaking and thus also of thinking that dictatorships and totalitarian orders force upon dominated people.
Language and Power in relation to the advertising
Not only in social context and politics, language and power has also a deal with advertising that language also affect to the small scenes of everyday life, to the arts of seduction of advertising, the sales tricks of telephone marketing, or the menacing undertones at the workplace or in the family. For example,
“apapun makanannya, minumnya teh botol sosro” Sosro advertisement
“Lead your Life" (TelkomSpeedy)
“Impossible is Nothing" (Adidas)
From these three examples it is very clear that language has power on seduction the reader about persuasion. Without a doubt, the power of language consists in the fact that it can be used for rhetorical persuasion. Every attempt to persuade others with and through language is always also an effort to make oneself understood. And regardless of how rhetorically skilled the speaker may be, in the end he inevitably places his words, as language, under discussion.
This first interpretation of the “power of language” already shows two things. On the one hand, that language and speaking must be distinguished in the exercise of power. The possibilities of language from the way in which language is actually used in spoken words. On the other hand, the interpretation also gives a presentiment that the power which is exercised through language always already bears within itself the germ of its counter-power. For the language of political demagogues and tyrants can be seen through as language. And by means of language itself. So that language conveys the power of violence or domination and at the same time undermines it. For everyone can take possession of the power of language and in this way see through and unmask the power exercised through language. Seen clearly, the “power of language” is thus not the fraternisation of language with command and obedience; this uses language for goals other than those which are inherent in it. The genuine, inner power of language is rather to undermine this other kind of power. Since ursurpatious and violent rule as well as legitimate rule must ultimately rely on the power of language in order to be exercised, to command and to assert itself, precisely language is the vulnerable spot of the commanding power. For the concealed intentions of a command can be seen through. The command can be obeyed, but it can also be refused; above all, it can be understood and so interpreted or re-interpreted quite as those might like who are supposed to obey it, but who for their part possess the infinitely divisible and epidemically disseminating power of language.
The Dimensions of the Power of Language
As it is cited on http://www.goethe.de/lhr/prj/mac/msp/en1253450.htm about the dimensions of the power of language concern on some aspects;
- The power of language shows itself not only, and not primarily, in the language of power, of overpowering and repression, but also in its emancipatory potential, in the opening of other and new possibilities of speaking, and so also of thinking and acting. All speech ineluctably refers to a possible contradiction, every “yes” to a possible “no”, every assertion to a possible doubt.
A comparable dialectic may also be found where language serves not repression and compulsion, but rather founds, illuminates and corroborates comprehensive and cosmological meaning in aesthetically pleasing, well thought-out forms. This is done above all by mythic or ritualised speech, by means of which man envisages and satisfies himself of the existence of a transcendent and sacred order. Even when in this way a certain social or ruling order is sacralised, mythic and ritualised speech is not another, possibly especially massive, instance of overpowering through language. Man needs the foothold provided by order and social institutions which are established and sustained mainly by linguistic symbolisation.
But precisely here the rendering into language has always opened the possibility of the variation and change of given interpretations, and to the extent that mythic grounds are themselves interrogated about their grounds. Sooner or later, the language of myth presses beyond itself to logos: that is, to word and reason, the language of reason, reasonable and accountable speech.
- After a long and eventful history, the rule of logos, the reason seeking, reason and counter-reason Weighing Reason, reaches it fulfilment in modern science. This science now speaks with the highest, universally binding authority, world-wide and about everything in the world. Its language is the real lingua franca of the developing world society. Its authority is fundamentally egalitarian and democratic; for it and with respect to it, nothing counts but “the non-violent force of the better argument” (Jürgen Habermas).
In fact, however, the language of the sciences is, at least to a good degree, comprehensible and accessible only to the relevant experts. For the bulk of people, on other hand, it is a secret language – also when it is not expressed mathematically but in a very reduced English.
In this certainly lies considerable possibilities for the abuse of power, of which many representatives of science, often together with those who hold political or economic power, avail themselves. But the deeper problem consists in the fact that scientific language, as helpful and indispensable as it is for rationally revealing and taking hold of the world tends at the same time to an enormous narrowing of man’s perception of reality. Not only recently but as long as there has been science, people have observed and criticized the extent to which our experience of the world and of ourselves is stunted when it is restricted to what can be expressed in scientific language.
- Ludwig Wittgenstein, to whom precisely this restriction seemed imperative, later set against it the insight into language as a “form of life”. A very similar insight, if a different philosophical goal, has its source in Martin Heidegger’s speaking of language as the “House of Being”, where the language here meant is the historically developed, living language in its great and wondrous particularity and variety in general, and the language of poetry, which draws on, extends and goes beyond the historical language, in particular. “Man dwells poetically” (Dichterisch wohnet der Mensch) says, or better hopes, Friedrich Hölderlin, and this sentence brings the power of language to expression in its most important and deepest, at any rate in its most beautiful and freest, sense.
Those who speak the same language not only can make themselves understood to each other; the capacity of being able to make oneself understood also founds a feeling of belonging and belonging together. This identity-forming power of language is not a secondary effect through which individuals can form themselves into small or large social groups or with whose help the social cohesion of societies or state and supra-state unions can be fostered; it takes hold much earlier than these.
In his process of growing up, in the formation of his person and personality, language is not an element that the individual acquires at a certain point, but rather the acquisition of language is precisely this process in which the individual constitutes himself, not only as individual but also as an independent subject. By means of language he attains to a consciousness of himself and his surroundings. He acquires competencies to act and to make himself understood; in a word, he not only learns to interpret his world, but he also receives his world through and as language.
3. Conclusion
- Language and Power is about how language works to maintain and change power relations in contemporary society, and how understanding these processes can enable people to resist and change them
- Social class can be divided into three classes; those are upper class, middle class, and lower class.
- The language itself becomes a means of power: as political rhetoric and demagogy, as ideology and bedazzlement, as seduction through words, as “persuasion”
- Language also affect to the small scenes of everyday life, to the arts of seduction and of advertising.
- The dimensions of the power of language cover some important point, namely, first is the power of language shows itself not only, and not primarily, in the language of power, of overpowering and repression, but also in its emancipatory potential, in the opening of other and new possibilities of speaking, and so also of thinking and acting. Second, the language of the sciences is, at least to a good degree, comprehensible and accessible only to the relevant experts. And the last is those who speak the same language not only can make themselves understood to each other; the capacity of being able to make oneself understood also founds a feeling of belonging and belonging together.
References
Class.html. retrieved on Sunday, December 4, 2011.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Hymes
http://www.goethe.de/lhr/prj/mac/msp/en1253450.htm
Hymes, D., "The Ethnography of Speaking", pp. 13–53 in Gladwin, T. & Sturtevant, W.C. (eds), Anthropology and Human Behavior, The Anthropology Society of Washington, (Washington), 1962.
Language in Culture and Society (1964)
Social_classmmmm.htm. retrieved on Sunday, December 4, 2011.
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SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-29495458749223856612012-10-22T18:01:00.001-07:002012-10-22T18:01:17.178-07:00Politeness and Solidarity<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: blue;">1. The Definition of Politeness </span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;">In our daily life, we have the awareness about which one is polite action and which one is not. Politeness, thus, is an observable and social phenomenon. Whenever we want anybody else to respect and being good to us, we have to show our politeness. In turn, he/she will respond you politely either. We often say “hello! ” to others.All we want to do is to show our good feelings, our friendliness, and our intention to maintain harmonious relationships with them. In general, we act politely in order to show our wishes to start a friendly relation with someone, or to maintain it if it is already existing, or to fix it if it is being threatened for some reasons. To maintain such smooth, harmonious interpersonal relationships expected by every human in every society, politeness serves as an appropriate means.
There are ideas by expert about what politeness is. Watts (2003, p. 39) had proposed four definitions of politeness. They are as follows:
1. Politeness is the ideal union between the character of an individual and his external actions (e.g. the language which that individual uses).
2. Politeness is the ability to please others through one’s external
actions (e.g. through one’s language usage).
3. Politeness is the natural attribute of a ‘good’ character.
4. Politeness is a socially acquired state of mind that is adjudged to have reached a state of being ‘polished’ and of thereby being in conformity with a set of socially accepted forms of behavior
Kasper (1990) as cited in Huang (2008) said that “communication is seen as a fundamentally dangerous and antagonistic endeavor”. Politeness is therefore defined by Kasper as a term to refer to the strategies available to interactants to defuse the danger and to minimalise the antagonism. Similarly, Brown and Levinson (1978) as cited in Huang (2008) view politeness as ‘a complex system for softening face-threatening acts’.
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2. Tu and Vous
Talking about politeness and solidarity, there are two forms of pronominal which indicate distinction between the uses of ‘familiar’ and ‘polite’ forms. Those forms are Tu (T) and Vous (V). According to Brown and Gilman (1960) as cited in Wardhaugh (2002), originally in French, Tu refers to ‘singular you’ while Vous refers to ‘plural you’. Historically, plural vous was used to refer to the emperor. At that time, there were two emperors who ruled eastern and western empire. Even though, administratively they were unified. Addressing one emperor means refer to both emperors. Besides, philosophically, the emperor was also said to be plural because the emperor was seen as the summation of his people and could speak as the people representative. Wardhaugh (2002) assumed that “the consequence of this usage was that by medieval times the upper classes apparently began to use V form with each other to show mutual respect and politeness” (p. 260). In further he said that the T which still exists was used by the lower classes in the following time. The lower class used mutual T while the upper classes used mutual V. When they talked to different classes, the upper classes used T and received V. This asymmetrical T/V usage therefore symbolizes a power relationship.
Wardhaugh noticed that lately the use of symmetrical V is used not only among the upper class. The polite V-V usage as the reflection of politeness is used spread downward in the society except the lowest class. Therefore, it happens that V-V is used between wife and husband, parent and children, and lovers. When V-V usage reflects respect and politeness, the T-T usage was said to reflect solidarity and intimacy. Wardhaugh had said that “mutual T for solidarity gradually come to replace the mutual V of politeness, since solidarity is often more important than politeness in personal relationship”. Even that today we still see the use of asymmetrical T/V uses, but solidarity is called to replace power that the use of mutual T is found quite often in relationships which previously has asymmetrical uses.
A book published in France entitled Savoir-vivre en France (Vigner, 1978 in Wardhaugh, 2002) gives advices to foreigners on the use of tu and vous. They are as follows:
1. Tu should be use between spouses, between brothers and sisters regardless of age, between parents and children, between close relatives, between young people living or working closely together, and between adults who have friendship of long standing, particularly adults of the same gender
2. Vous should be used between strangers, between those who have no ties of any kind, and between inferior and superior.
3. Address Terms
Politeness and solidarity are manifested also from the terms used in addressing other. There are some terms used to name or address another such as by title (T), by first name (FN), by last name (LN), by nick name, by some combination of these. There are factors influencing someone choice to address another. The address process goes symmetrically and asymmetrically.
Different society has different naming practice. One example which is called to be different from what we are likely familiar with is address terms used by Nuer, Sudanese people. Every Nuer has his/her own personal or birth name, a name given by their parents after the birth. The maternal grandparents also usually give second personal name. Consequently, the child’s paternal kin may address the child by one personal name while the child’s maternal kin by other. There are also special personal names for twins. In the village, males are addressed by their personal names during their boyhood. This name is shift as the boy grows up to be adult that less senior males will address the more senior males by Gwa which means ‘father’. This naming practice is different across culture.
According to a study in 1961 done by Brown and Ford, it was reported:
a. The asymmetric use of title, last name and first name (TLN/FN) indicated inequality in power
b. Mutual TLN indicated inequality and unfamiliarity
c. Mutual FN indicated equality and familiarity.
d. The switch from mutual TLN to FN is also usually initiated by the more powerful member of the relationship.
There are options of addressing other besides the name. They are as follows:
a. Addressing by the title alone (T), e.g. Professor, Doctor
b. Last name alone (LN), e.g. Smith
c. Multiple naming, e.g. variation between Mr Smith and Fred
Address by title alone is least intimate form of address because it designates the ranks of occupations such as Colonel, Doctor, or Waiter. They are devoid of ‘personal’ content. We can say then that Dr. Smith is more intimate than Doctor alone that the other person’s name is known and can be mentioned.
4. Politeness of Balinnese Society
Through the choice on the use of T/V form as well as address terms, we can show our feelings toward the others, whether it is solidarity, power, distance, respect, intimacy and our awareness of social customs. Such awareness is also shown through the general politeness with which we use language. Politeness itself is socially prescribed. It does not means that we have to be polite in all occasion.
The concept of politeness is closely related to the work of Goffman 1955, 1967 on ‘face’ In social interaction we present a face to other and to others’ faces. In interaction, we need to protect both our own face and the face of others to the extent that ever time we meet each other we play a mini drama. Brown and Levinson (1987) in Wardhaugh (2002, p.275) differentiated positive and negative face. Positive face is the desire to gain the approval of others, ‘the positive consistent self-image’ or ‘personality’ …claimed by Interactants. Negative face is the desire to be unimpeded by others in one’s actions, ‘the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, and rights to non-distraction … freedom of action and freedom from imposition. Positive face looks for solidarity, while negative face requires the need to act without giving offense.
When we interact with other, we have such a choice whether to use positive politeness or the negative one. Positive politeness is called will lead to moves to achieves solidarity through offers of friendship, the use of compliments, and informal language use. On the other hand, negative politeness leads to deference, apologizing, indirectness, and formality in language use. The example of positive and negative politeness is the use of symmetric and asymmetric pronominal.
The concept of ‘politeness’ in language can be seen in balinnese cultures as follows:
a. Balinnese culture
Geertz studied Balinnese and found out that when Balinnese wants to say something, he/she needs to decide an appropriate speech style: high, middle, and low. The speaker needs to consider social relationship between the speaker and the listener in terms of status and familiarity. Such decision is needed because many words have different variants according to the style. For example: the equivalent to the English word I is titiang in high style, tiang in middle style, and iyang/icang in low style.
Geertz as cited in Wardhaugh (2002, p.276) added some interesting observation. He said that “as you move from low to high style, you speak more slowly and softly and more evenly in terms of rhythm and pitch, so that the highest levels when spoken correctly have kind of stately pomp which can make the simplest conversation seem like a greater ceremony. There are factors determining the selection of a particular level which Geertz proposed as follows:
1) Qualitative characteristics of the speaker such as:
a. Age
b. Sex
c. Kinship relation
d. Occupation
e. Wealth
f. Education
g. Religious commitment
h. Family background
2) More general factors such as:
a. Social setting. One would be likely to use the higher level to the same individual at a wedding than in the street.
b. The content of the conversation. In general, one uses lower levels when speaking commercial matters, higher ones if speaking of religious or aesthetic matters.
c. The history of social interaction between the speakers. One will tend to speak rather high, if one speaks at all, with someone with whom one has quarreled.
d. The presence of the third person. One tends to speak higher to the same individual if others are listening.
Wardhaugh (2002, p.278) stated three principles that seem to operate. They are:
1. Highest style is use among the old aristocrats or by anyone at the highest levels of society who wants to give the appearance of elegance.
2. Middle style is used by town-dwellers who are not close friends, or by peasants addressing superiors. Village-dwellers would also use this level whit very high superior since they cannot be expected to have any knowledge on the highest style.
3. Low style is the style all children learn first regardless of social class origin, and everyone uses it on some occasion, even close acquaintances of the highest classes.
Men and woman are also required to speak differently. Women are expected to be more talkative than man and to err on the side of being over-polite in their words choices. On the other hand, men are required to be extremely careful in manipulating the style of speech because nuanced speech is highly prized. As Bali has modernized, certain changes have occurred. Bahasa Indonesia had spread and dominated the speech on political live since they do not need to use the speak level.
It can be inferred that the choices of Balinnese on their language are determined by the need to maintain the existence of social arrangement, not to fulfill the individual’s need to address his/her momentary wants.
5. Considerable Items Related to Politeness.
To achieve the goal of politeness, we should consider it from the following aspects proposed by Watts (2003):
1) Considering the social background of the communicator.
Generally, the more educated a man is, the more he tendsto show his politeness to other people. The more he knows about the suitable ways to show politeness, the better he usesthem to be polite to others. Besides, the personality of the communicator is also very important here. Good-temperedperson prefers to use “face-saving act” while bad-tempered person prefers “face-threatening act” when they comeacross the “face-losing condition”.
2) According to the communicative circumstances.
Communication is a very complicated process. In formal occasions,people tend to use formal expressions to show politeness, especially between the new acquaintances. While in informal states,people tend to be casual to show intimacy even if it is in the very moment they meet. And that doesn’t meanimpoliteness. We can see it through the following example: A man came into a bar and said to the waiter: “Hi! Buddy! Gimme some Whisky, would ya?”Although they have never met before, the man used very casual phrases to enclose their relationship. This is a usual wayto show friendliness to strangers.
3) Considering the social distance or closeness.
In situations of social distance or closeness, showing awareness for another person’s face when that other seemssocially distant is often described in terms of respect or deference. Showing the equivalent awareness when the other issocially close is often described in terms of friendliness or solidarity. Even though, there are exceptions. For example, people often use family names to call their close friends, and when these peoplespeak to each other, they will use direct offer or request. But sometimes they use very formal expressions in their speech.Look at the following example:eg.2. Husband to his wife: “ Would you be so kind as to hand the bread over to me?”Surely we know that the wife has just quarreled with the husband and the husband is trying to amuse her in a certainway.
Besides all the aspects discussed above, there’s another important point to concern with that is the cultural differences.
4) Cultural Differences
Different culture causes different views of values, which affects the criteria of politeness and leads to differences invarious aspects.
a. Ways to greet each others and farewells
The westerners often greet others with a cheerful “Hello!” or something like “How are you?” If they are talking with astranger, they tend to talk about the weather as a way of greeting. But to Chinese people, they like to ask “ Have youeaten?”,“where are you going ?” , “ What brings you here?” or “ What are you doing here?” All these would beconsidered as interferences to privacy for westerners.
When parting, Chinese seldom say “goodbye” as farewells that would be too formal or somewhat distant. Before theyleave, Chinese guests like to say “I have to go now.” “I am going.” or “Stay where you are”, and the hosts are used tosay “Go slowly”, “Come again.” to see them off. While two friends departing after they meet on the road, one of themmay say “ I’ve got to leave.” and the other may say “ Let’ s chat next time”, “ Come to see me when you are free.” Or“I would visit you if I can.” As for westerners, they often say “Goodbye!”,“See you!” when they part. (Deng Yanchang and Liu Runqing 1989 in Leech, 2005)
b. Ways to praise others
Look at this dialogue below:
(Seeing a beautiful curtain in an American family, the Chinese wants to praise the room settings)
Chinese: “How beautiful the curtain is!”
Hostess: “I made it on my own.”
Chinese: “Really? I can’t believe it!”
The Chinese used surprising tone to show he really liked the curtain, this strategy works well in China, but the hostessfelt insulted. We know the Americans are very confident about themselves. Imagine what they may feel when theirself-esteems are being hurt. The hostess thought the Chinese didn’t believe she was capable of doing it, and her abilitywas doubted.
c. Ways to express thanks
The ways to express thanks are different in China from western countries. Westerners prefer to convey their thanksdirectly while Chinese like to minimize themselves to achieve the same goal. See the following example:
1) When you praise them, “ How beautiful your dress is!
Westerners: “Thanks a lot!”
Chinese: “Really? It” s just an ordinary dress.”
2) When they appreciate your help,
Westerners: “ You” re really a great help to me.” Or “I can” t imagines how I can manage it without you! Or “Thank you for enduring so much trouble I brought to you!” “I really appreciate your help!” …
Chinese: “Sorry to have wasted your time.” Or “Sorry for having taken up your precious time.” Or “I” m not at ease for bringing your so much trouble.”
The westerner is trying to maximize the communicator’s help to be polite while the Chinese humbles himself to showgratitude. So it happens when a foreigner praises a Chinese woman for her beautiful dress, if the Chinese woman uses aChinese way to show politeness, her answer might be considered as minimizing the westerner’ s ability toappreciate for he had shown great surprise over such an ordinary dress.
6. Politeness and Solidarity in EFL Teaching
Different culture causes different views of values. It affects the criteria of politeness and leads to differences in various aspects.Since there are different views of criteria of politeness in different situation in different culture, it is necessary to serve the language learners the knowledge of different kind of politeness appropriate in certain culture. It enables the students see how people express their intention to build, maintain, or fix certain relationships. Serving the language learners with knowledge of the criteria of politeness which exists in English is more to be emphasized in English Foreign Language Teaching. English Foreign Language learners should have the knowledge of politeness in English itself since it would be different with those in another language. It is to say that certain language has its own politeness criteria. Therefore, students who are learning English whose aim is to communicating the language correctly and appropriately should learn the criteria of language use in their target language.
CONCLUSION
Politeness is very important principle in language use because it determines the relationship that is going to build up between the speaker and the hearer. Different societies may have different view about the way of being polite. In using French, we cannot avoid to use tu and vous distinction. In communicating in English, we must refer to others and address them on occasion. In speaking in Javanese and Japanese, we must observe the convention having to do with the correct choice of speech level and honorifics. Since there are different views of criteria of politeness in different situation in different culture, it is necessary to serve the language learners the knowledge of different kind of politeness appropriate in certain culture. Even though, serving the language learners with knowledge of the criteria of politeness which exists in English is more to be emphasized in English Foreign Language Teaching.
REFERENCES
Wardhaugh, Ronald. 2002. An introduction to sociolinguistics. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
Richard J. Watts.2003. Politeness. New York: Cambridge University Press
Yongliang Huang. 2008. Politeness Principle in Cross-Cultural Communication(Available in Journal on English Language Teaching, Vol.1 No.1. June 2008)
Geoffrey Leech. 2005. Politeness: Is there an East-West Divide? ( Available in Journal of Foreign Languages,General Serial No.160. No.6, November 2005
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SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-13947568371287935362012-05-19T05:07:00.002-07:002012-05-19T05:14:30.353-07:00LANGUAGE MIXING AND CODE MIXING (BALINESE, INDONESIAN, AND ENGLISH) IMPLICATION FOR EFL TEACHING AND LEARNING<div style="font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span ><b>INTRODUCTION</b></span></span></div><div style="font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span ><b>In this globalization era, almost all of the learning institutions in Indonesia teach English as foreign language (EFL) to their students. TEFL is the teaching of English as a foreign language which can take place in any country, English-speaking or non-English speaking like in Indonesia. It is not surprising that EFL is also taught in the kindergarten students. People believed that English is a language with great reach and influence so it is taught all over the world under many different circumstances. The motivation behind the move towards teaching EFL is first and foremost to improve the local students’ English language competence as mastery in the language is an asset in seeking employment in the globalised economic world. In addition, the vast amount of information is currently available in English. Thus, it is hoped that the availability of English and more exposure to the language in the classroom can contribute to the students’ English language competence, which is the key to access information in a variety of fields and also to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge.</b></span></span></div><div style="font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span ><b>However, In Indonesia, teaching and learning EFL are not easy jobs for both teachers and students in non-English speaking country. Specifically in Bali, people use Balinese language as their first language or mother tongue and it uses actively in their daily communication with others, especially with their relatives. Indonesian becomes their second language in which it uses in both informal and formal situation such as: school, government offices, public places etc. English is rarely found in daily communication among Balinese so it is quite hard for Balinese to acquire English completely. </b></span></span></div><div style="font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span ><b>In fact, nowadays, there is a condition in which people commonly mix those three languages –Balinese, Indonesian, and English- in their communication. This condition of mixing three languages which is also known as code mixing is also occurred in teaching and learning process, especially in English subject. Code-mixing is the change of one language to another within the same utterance or in the same oral/written text. It is a common phenomenon in societies in which two or more languages are used. The advantages of using code mixing are also used in English instruction. English teacher will find that it is easier to transfer materials by mixing the languages since not all students are completely able to understand the explanation in English. Students will also find easier to understand the explanation if the language used by teacher is mixed with the languages they often used such as Balinese or Indonesian. However, using code mixing in teaching English is not only give advantages to the teaching and learning process but also some disadvantages. People find that mixing the languages can give some good and bad implications to the EFL teaching and learning. It means that the condition will give implications to the EFL teaching and learning for both the better and the worse.</b></span></span></div><div style="font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span ><b>This paper is aimed at examining the implications of language mixing and code mixing (especially Balinese, Indonesian, and English) for EFL teaching and learning. It will be started by giving the notion of code mixing, the application of code mixing in EFL teaching and learning, and the implications of it toward the EFL teaching and learning.</b></span></span></div><span class="fullpost"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><b><br /></b></span></div><span ><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">CONTENTS</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">A. The Notion of Code Mixing </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Code-mixing are well-known traits in the speech pattern of the average bilingual in any human society the world over. Code here as defined by Ayeomoni (2006) will be taken as a verbal component that can be as small as a morpheme or as comprehensive and complex as the entire system of language. It has been variously termed “code alternation”, “language mixing” or “language alternation”. Several scholars have attempted to define code-mixing. Bokamba (1989), for instance, defines that code-mixing is the embedding of various linguistic units such as affixes (bound morphemes), words (unbound morphemes), phrases and clauses from a co-operative activity where the participants, in order to infer what is intended, must reconcile what they hear with what they understand.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">This paper will use the definition of code mixing suggested by Bentahila and Davies. They defined code-mixing as random alternation of two languages within a sentence. It is often used interchangeably with another term, code switching. The term “code-mixing” refers to mixing of two or more languages within a sentence while the term “code-switching” refers to mixing of two or more languages at the clause level in a discourse in a fully grammatically way (Poplack, 1980). The basic difference between code-switching and code-mixing is the composition of the elements intermingled and the arrangement of such intermingling.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">While linguists who are primarily interested in the structure or form of code-mixing may have relatively little interest to separate code-mixing from code-switching, some sociolinguists have gone to great lengths to differentiate the two phenomena. For these scholars, code-switching is associated with particular pragmatic effects, discourse functions, or associations with group identity. In this tradition, the terms code-mixing or language alternation are used to describe more stable situations in which multiple languages are used without such pragmatic effects. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Code-mixing involves a number of implications in EFL teaching and learning. As previous study stated that one of the implications is that when a vocabulary item is presented to students through code-mixing, they will be able to rely on their existing morphosyntactic knowledge to use the new vocabulary for other syntactic functions (Celik, 2003). The relevant literature suggests that, there are mixed feelings towards code-mixing. A number of positive viewers have pointed out several merits of code-mixing. One benefit of this method of vocabulary presentation, as Celik (2003) describes is time; that is, both preparation and implementation of this method require a minimal amount of time. Another benefit is that, this technique does not require additional materials. As Ying (2005) contends, those who look at code-mixing from the negative perspective, see it as a disease, something to be avoided. After all, this technique does involve a number of constraints. All EFL learners in a classroom must share the same L1. </span></div></b></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><b><br /></b></span></div><span ><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">B. The Application of Code Mixing in EFL Teaching and Learning</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Learning English as a foreign language happens in some countries around the world. Indonesia is one country that use English lesson as one subject that taught in every school. Teaching foreign language in classroom commonly face a lot of troubles since that English language itself is foreign language for those children. For students in big city or centre of province, the use of English must be touching most aspect of their daily life. They may see advertisement, announcement, and public information in English. However, children who born and raised in rural area are rarely find those thinks written in English. This condition make the English language become a strange subject to be taught even in school when the teacher of English language may not be really fluent in using English itself. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Based on the fact above which is easily found in our daily life, teacher initiatively uses strategy to overcome this problem in their English classes. Code-mixing represents one of the strategies that EFL teachers often use to accommodate the students' level of English proficiency. Some researchers analyze the phenomenon of code-mixing by EFL teacher, especially the functions of code-mixing in English teaching classrooms nowadays. According to finding and analysis, code-switching and code-mixing can be a good device to underline the importance of a particular piece of information, whether it is a grammar role, a name or an order. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">So it may be suggested that code-switching and code-mixing in language classroom is not always an obstacle in learning a language as what conventional view see it, but may be considered as a useful strategy in classroom interaction, if the purpose is to make meaning clear and to transfer the knowledge to students in an efficient way. In another word, the use of code-switching and code-mixing somehow builds a bridge from unknown to known and may be considered as an important element in language teaching when used efficiently. Meanwhile, the researcher suggested to pay-attention of using code-switching and code-mixing in excessive way because it could be result in negative influences.</span></div></b></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><b><br /></b></span></div><span ><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Code- mixing for teaching strategy</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">The use of code-mixing as teaching language strategy is worldwide used by teacher especially in EFL classroom. It is because the use of code-mixing makes the students more comfort in learning English as a foreign language. When the teacher teaches the students with full English non-stop during the lesson, students will easily get bored since that the students do not understand or only understand few of the words used by the teacher. In order to make the students understand rapidly the meaning of a sentence or words, English teachers in Bali sometimes have to put one or two words in English sentence using Balinese or Bahasa. By this way, students will feel that English lesson is not a lesson that has to be afraid of, since mixing the languages is not a big problem for the teacher and it is not considered a big mistake for students. When students start to feel comfort and enjoy along the lesson, they will pay much more attention toward the lesson. Start from this condition students will love English and curious to learn more. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Code-mixing as teaching strategy may used to overcome some difficulties in teaching vocabulary and structure in EFL classes especially when the students’ difficulty is in understanding the teacher’s explanation toward the topics given. More explanation about the use of code-mixing in teaching vocabulary and structure, will be given as following</span></div></b></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><b><br /></b></span></div><span ><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">The use of code-mixing in teaching vocabulary</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">The use of code-mixing usually appears when teacher has to introduce new target vocabulary items. Code mixing involves the use of L1 or L2 words in foreign language utterances. \. Further, it is found that even the precise bilingual have to drawn on vocabulary from one language while speaking another. This may be taken to indicate that vocabulary is organized the way synonym and antonym is organized in one’s L1. The example of the use of code-mixing in learning vocabulary</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">1. First step: to get meaning of words and meaning of paragraph </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">For getting word meaning</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">“Table is meja” while the teacher point at the table</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">“Students look at to your book page 19, mengerti?”</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">“You are a smart student. Pintar reading and writing in English”</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">“Bupati is leader in regency. His name is Bapak Bagiada.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">“In Sukawati, we can find so many togog”</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">“Anak luh nganggon skirt, anak muani nganggon short”</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">“Girl memakai ribbon on hair, she is beautiful.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In this examples teacher uses L1 word in purpose to make a student get the meaning for the next English word. We can see in the (2) example, the elementary student does not know about the meaning of ‘leader’. By putting word bupati and bapak, we can hope that they will understand that meaning of ‘leader’, since that they know Bapak Bagiada is the leader of Buleleng.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">For getting paragraph meaning</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">“A lot of accident happens in road. Of course, there as some reasons for this, one of this may be that the law in our country is so lemah. However, another reason may be because the driver is punyah after drinking alcohol, and the bigger problem arise when the officer takut to report it to his boss”</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">“People can easily terpengaruh by other people. Since that in school we meet a lot of friends. We have to be selektif in choosing friend. School must be a good lingkungan for the students”</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In this example we use code-mixing to make the student understand the whole meaning of the context that has been discussed. It is not important that they have to understand every single word in it. They only need to grab the meaning and understand it in a whole. Like the example (1), by looking at the words lemah, punyah, and takut while consider other words (law, officer, alcohol, etc) we can hope that they will get the meaning of the paragraph. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">2. Second step: to discuss the topic</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">When they understand the topic given previously, for example, “Road Accident” topic, they will be able to discuss that topic in group. Along this process, teacher has to pay much more attention to listen their discussion in order to know how they are going to talk about it and how many target lexical items that they use. When this discussion happen and the student start questioning about what an English word for lemah, punyah and takut, or what the synonym for them, teacher then have to ask them to look at it on their dictionary. This condition will stimulate students to be curious and active in finding new vocabulary. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">3. Third step: to write their own writing </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">After students get the meaning of paragraph and discuss it, they have to be able to write their own writing in a same topic with the topic that previously given. For example, “Road Accident”, let them read it silently. Then ask them to write their own paragraph just like the “Road Accident” paragraph. The aim of this activity is to make sure that the students really get the message and able to use the target lexical items in English even able to use the synonym of them.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">By the explanation and example above, clearly that code-mixing is an effective strategy for teaching new vocabulary. Since that students enrich by a lot of vocabularies, they will able to develop their skill in writing, reading, listening and speaking. Since that code-mixing is available used in English class (as long as it is not too much) students will be braver to express their idea trough writing or speaking. They will understand that in some cases or in a certain occasion, they are allowed to mix their language into L1 and L2 languages as well as foreign language. However, code-mixing has to use wisely in order to avoid the redundant use of it. Teacher has to explain that the use of code-mixing is not totally wrong, but to be a fluent user of foreign language, they have to avoid the use of code-mixing unless they forget the meaning in English. Students in this case, have to know that the use of code-mixing in English lesson is not bad, but it is also not good if they use it too often. </span></div></b></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><b><br /></b></span></div><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; "><b>C. The Implications of Code Mixing in EFL Teaching and Learning </b></span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><b><br /></b></span></div><span ><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">A. Conclusions</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">From the discussion above, we can conclude that:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">1. Code-mixing are well-known traits in the speech pattern of the average bilingual in any human society the world over. According to Bentahila and Davies (1983) code-mixing is the random alternation of two languages within a sentence.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">2. Code mixing can be used as a strategy to teach English as Foreign Language (EFL) especially in teaching vocabulary to the students. The use of code-mixing makes the students more comfort in learning EFL. It can be taught through three steps, such as: get meaning of words and meaning of paragraph, discuss the topic, and write their own writing. It is believed that this strategy will give advantage to the students’ mastery of vocabulary.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">3. Code-mixing involves a number of implications in EFL teaching and learning.</span></div></b></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><b><br /></b></span></div><span ><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">B. Suggestions</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">There are some suggestions that can be given for the reader while applying code mixing in teaching English to the students:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">1. Make an agreement with your students about the use of code-mixing in their English class and by time you have a role to reduce that amount to few words only</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">2. Use code-mixing strategy in certain condition only. For example when you think that those L2 words are difficult to be understood by the students or the paragraph is too complex for the students</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">3. Code-mixing is used for instructional purposes, not for making a joke or making funny expression. Do not let the students to use code-mixing for joking in inappropriate way because it will reduce the value of L2 language</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">4. Tell the students that mixing their L1 and L2 language sometimes is allowed, but to use it too often is wrong because it will make the students lazy </span></div></b></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><b><br /></b></span></div><span ><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">References</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Ariffin, K & Susanti. M. 2011. Code-switching and Code-mixing of English and Bahasa Malaysia in Content-Based Classrooms: Frequency and Attitudes. Malaysia. Linguistics Journal June 2011 Volume 5 issues 1. Retrieved (December 1, 2011) from http://www.Code-mixing malay.com/documents/biRouh_rep.pdf</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Celik, M. Teaching Vocabulary Through Code-mixing. 2003. Turkey. ELT Journal Hacettepe University. Retrieved (December 1, 2011) from http://www.teaching vocabulary.com/documents/Celik_rep.pdf</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Poplack, S., 1980. “Sometimes I’ll Start a Sentence in Spanish y terminó en español: Towards a Typology of Codeswitching”, Linguistics 18(7/8), pp. 581-618.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Wardhaugh, R. 1998. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Third Edition. USA. Blackweel Publishers. Ltd</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Zarei, A & Tagipour. S. 2011. The effects of code-mixing, thematic clustering, and contextualization on L2 vocabulary recognition and production. Iran. Journal of Language and Culture. Retrieved (December 1, 2011) from http://www.academicjournals.org/JLC</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">http://arief.wordpress.com/2009/03/31/pengertian-code-mixing/</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">http://blog.timesunion.com/vinoteca/defining-codemixing/2721/</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-mixing</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">http://home.comcast.net/~codemixingslp/implicational.1.htm</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields-multi.cfm).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">http://www.nethelp.no/cindy/define.html</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">http://www.slideshare.net/cmcgoun/codemixing-2913116</span></div></b></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-42335147791808539022012-05-04T03:01:00.001-07:002012-05-04T03:04:07.307-07:00ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION<div style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span >1.Introduction</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span >Communication is theoretically a neutral way of sharing knowledge or worldviews and of maintaining social relationships. Practically, some aspects of communication can vary according to geographical areas, social class, gender, age and level of education. Ethnography is a field of study that is concerned primarily with the description and analysis of culture, and linguistics is a field concerned, among other things, with the description and analysis of language codes (Troike, 2003). According to Crystal (2008) ethnography is a branch of linguistics that studies language in relationship to investigation of ethnic types and behavior. </span></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span >Ethnography of communication relates ethnography, the description, and structural-functional analysis of society and culture, with the ‘language’ – a cultural behavior that navigates and helps to share knowledge, arts, morals, beliefs, and everything acquired by man as a member of society. The ethnography of communication is an approach, a perspective, and a method to and in the study of culturally distinctive means and meanings of communication. The approach can be use to produce hundreds of research reports about locally patterned practices of communication, and has focused attention primarily on the situated uses of language. It can also been productively applied to various other means and media of communication including oral and printed literature, broadcast media, writing systems, various gestural dynamics, silence, visual signs, the Internet, and so on. </span></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span >To do it ‘language’, designed and structured by pattern of culture, acts as a communicative tool. Language carries and transmits social/cultural traits through generations. The role of speech behavior, one of the aspects of language, has always been significant in cultural anthropological research. Ethnography of Communication, the concept introduced by Del Hymes in late sixties, is an active action of human way of life. He and his associates constructed a model of ‘Speaking model while tried to understand society and culture of an ethnic group through communication process</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">2. Nature of the Approach</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">The approach is concerned with; (1) the linguistic resources people use in context, not just grammar in the traditional sense, but the socially situated uses and meanings of words, their relations, and sequential forms of expression; (2) the various media used when communicating, and their comparative analysis, such as online "messaging" and how it compares to face–to–face messaging; (3) the way verbal and nonverbal signs create and reveal social codes of identity, relationships, emotions, place, and communication itself.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Reports about these and other dynamics focus on particular ways a medium of communication is used, on particular ways of speaking, on the analysis of particular communicative events, on specific acts of communication, and on the role of communication in specific institutions of social life.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In addition to its focus on locally distinctive practices of communication, the ethnography of communication is also guided by a particular methodology and general concerns in theory development. As a theoretical perspective, it offers a range of concepts for understanding communication in any possible scene and/or community; as a methodology, it offers procedures for analyzing communication practices as formative of social life. The methodology typically involves various procedures for empirical analysis including participant observation in the contexts of everyday, social life, as well as interviewing participants about communication in those contexts.</span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">3. The Origin of Ethnography of Communication </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">The ethnography of communication was founded by Dell Hymes In 1962. Hymes published a paper that called ‘a new area of study’, a kind of linguistics that explored language not just as a formal system of grammar, but as something culturally shaped in the contexts of social life. In 1964, Hymes and his colleague John Gumperz published a special section of the journal ‘American Anthropologist’, the basis of a highly influential reader on the subject, pioneering a general path for ethnographic studies of communication. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Some studies explored aspects of communication that were often ignored, such as gender role enactment, the social processes of litigation, marginalized styles, social uses of verbal play, and culturally distinctive styles of speaking. By the late 1980s and 1990s, a bibliography of over 250 research papers in the ethnography of communication was published, with another reader and several books appearing (e.g., Katriel 1986; Philipsen and Carbaugh 1986; Carbaugh 1990). These demonstrated how communication was a culturally distinctive activity while examining issues such as the ways communication varied by social agent and class, relationships between speaking and silence, as well as intercultural interactions. </span></div></span></span><span class="fullpost"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">4. Conceptualizing Basic Units of Communication </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">The ethnography of communication offers a system of concepts that can be used to conceptualize the basic phenomena of study, and a set of components for analyses of those phenomena in detail, however, the phenomena of study can be understood. Hymes introduced four concepts as basic units for the ethnographic study of communication. They are (1) communication event, (2) communication act, (3) communication situation, and (4) speech community. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">The concept of communication event has become a prominent starting point for these analyses; it draws attention to communicative action as formative of social processes and sequences. A communication event can be understood from the point of view of participants, an integral, patterned part of social life. Communication events typically involve a sequential structuring of acts, can be understood by formulating norms or rules about them, and involve culturally bounded aspects of social life which have a beginning and ending. Ethnographers of communication start their analyses by focusing on uses of the means and meanings of communication in particular socio–cultural lives. As a result, the locus of the study is on the practice of communication in contexts.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Communication events involve many kinds of actions. Events can be understood as the conduct of social actions, with communication act being the concept that brings together the performance of that action and its interpretation. One might say, e.g., "I enjoy hiking." This saying might perform many actions: it might be used to account for one's attire, to counter others with anti–hiking interests, and so on. The concept of communication act, then, ties ethnographic analyses to specific social interactions in order to understand the range of conduct and actions that is done by them. Communication acts are most typically parts of larger sequences of social actions and in this sense are often usefully conceptualized as integral aspects of communication events. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In any human community, there are many places where communication is expected or prohibited. These enter into ethnographies of communication as aspects of a setting in which communication itself occur. The concept of communication situation is used to identify specific settings and scenes for communication. For example, in some communities, communication situations involve the front porch, the television lounge, the bar, or a medical office. Unlike communication events, such as a church service, which are typically governed by a set of special rules and sequences, communication situations may involve activities with some particular limitation but without a strict sequencing of acts or activities. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">A speech community is a group of people who share rules for using and interpreting at least one communication practice. A communication practice might involve specific events, acts, or situations, with the use and interpretation of at least one essential for membership in a speech community. The term "speech" is used here to stand in for various means of communication, verbal and nonverbal, written and oral; while the term "community," minimally involving one practice, usually involves many practices in general and thus used to embrace the diversity in the means and meanings available for communication. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">As communities of people gather in communication, so do they conduct themselves in particular ways? It is these patterned ways of speaking (e.g., about politics, in worship, or in education that identify in which community one is, indeed who and where one is). In this sense, ethnographers of communication explore various ways of communicating, the situated variety in the events, acts, and situations of communicative life. Special interest are specific situations and events in which different cultural styles of communication are simultaneously active (Intercultural Sociolinguistics; Intercultural and Intergroup Communication; Intercultural Norms; Intergroup Contact and Communication). </span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">5. The Ethnography of Speaking </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">People do not speak in uncontrolled manner. It means that there are factors which determine the production of utterances. Hymes (1974) proposed the term ‘SPEAKING’ to refer to the various factors which determine the do and the don’ts in the production of utterances. What Hymes offers is a necessary reminder that talk is a complex activity. In order to get successful communication, the speakers must reveal sensitivity to and awareness of each of the eight factors. Speakers and listeners must also work to see that nothing goes wrong. When conversation goes wrong, that going wrong is often clearly described in term of some neglect of one or more of the factors. Thus, in relation to the ethnography of speaking there are better speakers and poor speakers. A better speaker has special ability called communicative. Gumperrz (1972) stated that communicative ability is speaker’s ability to select from which appropriately reflect the social norms governing behavior in specific occasion. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">SPEAKING is actually an acronym in which it consists of: </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">1. Setting and scene. Setting refers to the time and place while scene refers to the abstract psychological setting. Setting and scene will determine the choice of word in communication as it is made clear in the following example: </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">e.g. when Balinese come in into ‘griya’ (house of brahmana caste) they would likely use upper language instead of lower language. They will use ‘pewaregan’ instead of ‘paon’ even though they refer to the same concept that is kitchen. If the speakers do not use the upper class of language, they will be considered rude. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">e.g. In relation to the scene, people are freely change scene for instance change of level of formality. These also influence the choice of words. As in change the level of formality is indicated by the words used. As in conversation Balinese commonly attended, when they say, for example ‘kene ne Man…’ the conversation will change from say joyful to serious. If this does not ignored by the listeners, the communication will collapse. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">2. The participant. It refers to the people who are involved in communication. It includes various combination of speaker-listener, addressor-addressee, or sender-receiver. They generally fill the social specified roles. The relationship between the speakers-listeners limits the words used.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">e.g. when parents talk to the children, they tend to avoid to use words that are considered taboo. Words such as ‘cai, leak, endasne or words denote private part of human body’ are avoided to use when speak to children. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">3. Ends. Ends refer to recognized and expected outcomes of an exchange as well as to the personal goals that participant seek to accomplish on particular occasion. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">e.g. this is commonly found in the drama gong (Balinese traditional drama play), Arja (Balinase opera) or puppet play which are aimed at amusing spectator. The actor generally uses words which denote physical deficiency such as ‘selem badeng kotot, endas talenan, gigi sambeng or etc. These words when are used in this occasion which are intended at amusing spectator will not give bad consequence but, when this kind of words are used in common conversation speaker may get punishment or may be considered rude. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">4. Act sequence. Act sequence refers to the actual form and content of what is said: the precise words used, how they are used, and the relationship of what is said to the actual topic at hand. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">e.g. what is said has to be relevant to the topic discussed. When talk about deity, Balinese will prefer to use words ‘lunga’ than ‘luas’ (these two words refer to the concept of movement to one place) or ‘mapakayunan’ rather then ‘nagih’(these two words refer to the desirability) </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">5. Key. Key refers to the tone, manner, or spirit in which a particular message is conveyed: serious, precise, sarcastic etc. The key may also be marked by certain kind of behavior, gesture, posture, or even deportment. When there is a lack of fit between what a person is saying and the key that person is using, listener are likely to pay attention on the key then to the actual content.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">e.g. ‘nah’ when is used along with smile will indicate agreeing but, when ‘nah’ is said along with lurking aye and high intonation it indicate that the speakers are not with the listeners. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">6. Instrumental. Instrumental refers to the choice of channel, e.g. written and oral and to the actual form of speech employed such as language, dialect, code that is chosen. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">e.g. person who wants to be socially accepted, he may use dialect appropriate to the community attended. When go to Singaraja one may use ‘ake’, to Gianyar may use ‘cang’ or to Karangasem ‘tiyang’. These three words are first pronoun. When the uses of these pronouns are not considered speakers may be outed from the community. Do not even try to use word ‘ake’ in Karangasem because no one uses this word in Karangasem. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">7. Norm of interaction and interpretation. Norm of interaction and interpretation refers to the specific behavior and properties that attach to speaking and also to how these may be viewed by someone who does not share them. However this norm may vary from social group to social group. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">e.g. when directing Balinese usually use their right hand not their left hand. Balinese will say ‘ditu ye bedaja’ with their right hand pointing to the north. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">8. Genre. Genre refers to the clearly divided type of utterance; such as things as poem, proverbs, riddle and lecture etc. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">e.g. when you hear someone talk about ‘branangan, saet, saya, and ringgit’. From these words it can be concluded that he talks about cock fighting. Thus type of talk or genre of the talk can be identified by the use of specific words as indicated in the above example. </span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">6. Data Gathering</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">First thing to note in conducting ethnographic research is that researcher should involve in every activities conducted by the member of the social community observed. The observation of a particular community is not attained from a distant and safe point but by being in the middle of things, that is, by participating in as many social events as possible. Researcher should at least be in the middle of community for about 6 moths. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Having understood with the basis nature of ethnography research, research should understand that they have to find certain commonalities among the members of the group, certain shared or mutually intelligible habits, social activities, ways of interacting and interpreting social acts. This is important, as generally community member will share the same knowledge among their group member. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In order to gather the data there some techniques used. They are:</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">1. Participant observation</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In this technique, researchers intensively interact with other participant and might even get to participate in and perform the very activity they are studying. In the case of linguistic fieldwork, complete participation means being able to interact competently in the native language and even perform the verbal genres one is studying. Complete participation, when possible and ethically appropriate, gives researchers a great opportunity to directly experience the very processes they are trying to document. Though it is by no means equivalent to entering the mind and body of a native speaker, performing gives a researcher important insights into what it means to be a participant in a given situation and suggests hypotheses and further questions.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">This technique has its weaknesses. The participation of the researcher in communities implies an attention to one’s role and one’s perception by others that can be very absorbing and, from the point of view of documenting what is going on, extremely distracting. Researchers should restrain themselves from complete participation. They have to stand and sit the least intrusive place. This is called blind spot. Other deficiency is that researchers have to find right demeanor for a given place. Sometimes this means that they must be immobile so as not to draw attention; other times, it means that they have to keep busy. There is also some occasion which is forbidden for stranger to enter. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">2. Interview</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Researchers are continuously asking questions and many of the questions they ask are about topics and issues they are trying to make sense of. In this sense, researchers’ questions are never useless even though any answers given are least informative, the answer might be quite informative for the researcher sometimes later.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Interview is good for obtaining background cultural information that is crucial for understanding particular speech exchanges researches are studying. The interview might be an occasion for getting a linguistic corpus for studying grammatical forms, stylistic variations, and attitudes toward the language (Hill and Hill 1986) in.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">The weakness of this technique is that this technique is rarely providing the richness of information needed for culturally linguistic analysis. There are also differences among society about conceptualizing what interview is. Some societies believe that asking for personal motivation is not allowed. In relation to asking question, researcher should know about the ecology of asking question, that is who is allowed to question who, when and how. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Interview is differentiated as spoken interview and written questionnaire. Spoken interview is generally used for illiterate community while written questionnaire is usually used to eliminate the felling being interrogated. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">3. Electronic recording</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">The introduction of recording machines such as the tape recorder and the video camera (or camcorder) among the field researcher’s tools has a number of advantages over the traditional method of participant-observation based on the researcher’s skills at listening, seeing, and (most importantly) remembering – whether or not aided by written notes. The ability to stop the flow of discourse or the flow of body movement, go back to a particular spot and replay it allows us to concentrate on what is sometimes a very small detail at the time, including a particular sound or a person’s small gesture.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">The weakness of using electronic recording is that participant-observer paradox. To collect information researchers need to observe interaction, but to observe interaction (in ethically acceptable ways) we need to be in the scene; therefore, any time researchers observe they affect what they see because others monitor our presence and act accordingly.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">4. Writing interaction</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Ethnography can not be done without writing. Even though, the concept of writing interaction presents problem on the basis of accuracy of the record of a given expression, it is still needed as there is no perfect recording device that would reproduce the exact context of the recorded event. By writing researchers are expected to record what is other device can not record, for instance the data which occurs unexpectedly. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">5. Identifying and using local language.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">There is no question that researchers should try their best to become familiar with the language used by the people they study. This is important not only for the ability to conduct interviews without interpreters but also for understanding what is going on. The researchers attempt to speak the local language might sound; they symbolize a commitment, and show respect and appreciation for the cultural heritage of the people they study.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Unfortunately, it is often difficult for researchers to be already fluent in the local language before arriving at the field site. </span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Conclusion</span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">It can be conclude that :</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">1. Ethnography of communication is the study of place of a language in culture and society.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">2. Ethnography can be seen as an approach, a perspective, and a method.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">3. Ethnography offers an account to conceptualize the basic phenomena of study, and a set of components for analyses of those phenomena in detail, however, the phenomena of study can be understood. Hymes introduced four concepts as basic units for the ethnographic study of communication. They are (1) communication event, (2) communication act, (3) communication situation, and (4) speech community</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">4. People do not speak in unmannered ways. There is set of rule that governs the way people speak. Hymes refers to this rule as SPEAKING. It consists of S=setting, P=participant, E=end, A=act of sequence, K=key, I=instrument, N=norm of instruction and interpretation, G=genre.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">5. In conducting ethnography research, there are some techniques that can be used to gather the data. They are participant observation, interview, electronic recording, writing interaction, and using local language. </span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">References:</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Duranti, alessandro. 1997. Linguistics anthropology. Cambridge university press. New york</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Carbaugh, D. 2007. Ethnography of Communication. University of Massachusetts. Selected Work. [available at : http://works.bepress.com/donal_carbaugh/12] [ viewed on 1st December 2011]</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Crystal, D. 2008. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, Sixth edition. Malden, MA. Blackwell Publishing. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Saville-Troike, M. 2003. The Ethnography of Communication. Third edition. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.</span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-81594551145161228162012-04-25T20:50:00.001-07:002012-04-25T20:52:35.872-07:00LANGUAGE AND CULTURE<div style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span >1.Introduction</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span >The relationship between language and culture is one of many topics or issues discussed in Sociolinguistics. According to Trudgill (1974) in Sumarsono (2009) Sociolinguistics is defined as the study of a language as a part of culture and society. From the definition above, it is emphasized that language is a part of culture and cannot separated each other. Criper and Widowson (1975) in Sumarsono (2009) stated that Sociolinguistics is the study of language in operation. Its purpose is to show how the convention of language use relates to other aspect s of culture. In other words, in Sociolinguistics, we study language, culture and the relationship between them.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span >There are a lot of theories concerned with language and culture. Some theories stated that language is a part of culture. Others said that language and culture are two different things that have a much closed relation. In one hand, it is claimed that language is much more influenced by culture. As a result, all things included in culture can be manifested in language. In the other hand, it is also stated that language much influenced the culture and the way of thought of the society in which the language is used. (Khair and Agustina, 2010, p. 162 )</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span >In this paper, the writer will discuss the nature of relationship between language and culture based on the existed theories and it will focus on `Whorfian Hypothesis` and the theories which are opposite to it. Besides, the writer will also discuss the various ways in which language and culture have been said to be related. They are kinship system, taxonomies, color terminology, and taboo and euphemism.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span >Before the writer much further talks about the relationship between language and culture, to give clear concept, it is better for us to define what language and what culture are. Traditionally, language has been viewed as a vehicle of thought, a system of expression that a person mediates the transfer of thought from one person to another. (Finegan, Besiner, Blair, and Collins, 1992. p.3) Linguistically, language is defined as an arbitrary vocal system used by human beings to communicate with one another.( 1992. p. 9) Awhile, culture, in this context, is defined in the sense of whatever a person must know in order to function in a particular society, not in the sense of `high culture` like the appreciation of music, literature, the arts, etc. Goodenough ( 1957, p. 167) gives the definition of culture as ` a society`s culture consists of whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its member, and to do so in any role that they accept for any one of themselves.` In other words, culture is the `knowhow` that a person must possess to get through the task of daily living. (Wardhaugh, 1998, p. 215) </span></span></div><span class="fullpost"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">2. The Whorfian Hypothesis</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">One of the existed theories concerning the relationship between language and culture was founded by Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf. This theory is known as Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Some sociolinguists tend to use the term `Whorfian hypothesis` because the claim seems to be much more concerned with Whorf than it does to Sapir. Based on this hypothesis, the structure of a native language determines the way in which speakers of that language view the world. The way of thought of society is really determined by the language used.(Wardhaugh, 216) Sapir in his book `Language` (1929, p. 207) as quoted by Wardhaugh stated that human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. (p. 216) This idea was extended and strengthened by his student Benjamin Lee Whorf. Whorf stated that the background linguistics system called `grammar` of each language is not merely a reproducing instrument for voicing ideas but rather is itself the shaper of ideas, the program and guide for the individual`s mental activity, for his analysis of impression, for his synthesis for his mental stock in trade. Formulation of ideas is not an independent process, strictly rational in the old sense, but is part of a particular grammar, and differs from slightly to greatly, between different grammar. (Carroll, 1956, pp. 212)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">According to Whorf, different speakers will experience the world differently insofar as the language they speak differ structurally, and most of us are not aware of all the subtleties of structural differences among language can avoid seeing the world as it is rather than as it is presented through the screen of the language.(Wardhaugh, p. 217) This case can be exemplified by Javanese words `jaran` for `horse` and `belo` for `the kid of horse` known by Javanese children. These two words will influence their view when they learn Indonesian language. They will ask in his mind the word for `belo` in Indonesian. Awhile Indonesian has no word for it. (Sumarsono, p.59) Other example is that the linguistic structure of Hopi is different from that of English, German, French called as Standard Average European (SAE). Hopi grammatical categories provide a `process` orientation toward the world, whereas the categories in SAE are a fixed orientation toward time and space so that they not only `objectify` reality in certain ways but even distinguish between things that must be counted, e.g., trees, hills, waves, and sparks, and those that need not to be counted, e.g., water, fire, and courage.In SAE events occur, have occurred, or will occur, in a definite time, i.e., present, past, or future; to speaker of Hopi, an event can be warranted to haved occurred, or to be occurring, or to be expected to occur. From these linguistic structure phenomena, Whorf concluded that these differences lead speakers of Hopi and SAE to view the world differently. (Wardhaugh, p. 219)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Concerning with the claims made in Whorf hypothesis, Fishman (1972) claims that `if speakers of one language have certain words to describe things and speakers of another language lack of similar words, the speakers of the first language will find it easier to talk about those things` We can see this case on using the vocabularies of certain occasion like in profession; for example, physicians talk easily about medical phenomena, more easily than other profession like technical engineers, because physicians have the vocabulary to do so. Moreover, It is claimed that if one language makes distinctions that another language does not make, then those who use the first language will more readily perceive the differences in their environment which such linguistics distinctions draw attention to. .(Wardhaugh, p. 217)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">There ia another opinion that language and culture are two different things and they have close relationship. Silzer (1990) stated language and culture are like twins. What is in culture will be seen in language and vice versa. For example, In English and other European languages that are not familiar with eating rice, rice is the only one word for all kinds of rice. But in Indonesian, there are various kinds of words referring to rice, that is, padi, gabah, beras, and nasi. English societies know the difference of the four different words, but they don`t need to differ them. On the contrary, English societies are familiar with horse racing. They have `horse`, `colt`, `stallion`, `pony`, and `mare` for the word`horse`. But in Indonesian, there is only one word for `horse` because they feel they don`t need to differenciate it although they know the difference. (Chaer and Agustina, p. 168)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In contrast to Whorfian hypothesis, an anthropologist, Koentharaningrat, (1990) said that culture influences language.In this case, the relation can be as mainsystem and subsystem. Culture is considered as the main system and language as the subsystem. For example, if we praise someone with `Bajumu bagus sekali`, `Wah, rumah saudara besar sekali`, someone whom we praise seems to be shy and directly says``Ah, itu Cuma baju murahan, kok`, `beginilah namanya rumah di kampung`. In English, in contrast, someone will say `thank you` if s/he gets a kind of praise. (Chaer and Agustina, p. 170) This condition shows that the culture of English and Indonesian is different. So, the difference will be seen in the use of the language itself.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">3. Kinship System</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">One thing that can show the way in which people use language in daily living and show the relation between language and culture is in the case of kinship system. Kinship system is a universal feature of language because it is so important in social organization. Some systems are much richer than others, but all systems make use of such factors as sex, age, generation, blood, and marriage. Different kinship system will carry idea on how such people ought to call and behave towards others in the society that uses that system. This can be shown through the vocabularies used in different language. For example,the word ` family` in English has the same meaning as `keluarga` in Indonesian. For English, the word` family` includes husband, wife, and children. In contrast, in Indonesian the word `keluarga` includes more than husband, wife, and children. It rather includes grandparents, uncle, aunt, cousin, niece, nephew and so on.(Sumarsono, 2009, p. 62)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">It is important to remember that when a term like father, brother, or older brother is used in a kinship system that it carries with it ideas about how such people ought to behave towards others in the society that uses that system. Fathers,brothers, and older brothers are assumed to have certain rights and duties. In practice, of course, they may behave otherwise. It is the kinship system which determines who is called what; it is not the behavior of individuals which leads them to be called this or that.(Wardhaugh, p. 226)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">According to Sumarsono, there are two important terms that can be differenciated in this context. The first term is called `term of reference` This term refers to the words of kinship system, i.e. brother, sister, father, uncle, cousin etc in English. In Sasak, there are `inak`, `amak`, `papuk`, `balok`, `anak`. The second term called `term of address` refers to how we call or address the member of the family like `bi` for Indonesian for `aunt`, `pakl$$ek` for `older uncle from father or mother in Javanese, `amak kake`, `inak kake`, `saik` in Sasak. (p.63)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">4. Folk Taxonomy</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">According to Berlin (1992) in Wardhaugh, folk taxonomy is a way of classifying a certain part of reality so that it makes some kinds of sense to those who have to deal with it. Typically, such taxonomies involve matters like naturally occurring flora and fauna in the environment, but they may also others matters too. One the best-known studies of a folk taxonomy is Frake’s account (1961) of the terms that the Subanun of Mindanao in the southern Philippines use to explain disease of the skin. Effective treatment of any disease depends on proper diagnosis, but that depends on recognizing the symptoms for what they are. (Wardhaugh, 1998, 227)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Diagnosis is the process of finding the appropriate name for a set of symptoms. Once that name is found, treatment can follow. However, we can see that the success of that treatment depends critically not only on its therapeutic value but on the validity of the system of classification for diseases. That system is rather a “folk” one, not a scientific one.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">According to Berlin (1992) in Mifflin Folk taxonomies have hierarchical levels similar to formal biological classifications of kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species (Berlin, 1992). In folk taxonomy, the common levels are life from, generic, specific and varietal.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">4.1. Life form</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">A high level category of plants or animals that share some general shape or characteristic of their morphology. Examples: tree, vine, bush, fish, snake, bird, wug, or mammal.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">4.2. Generic</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">The most common, basic level. Examples are dog, oak, grass, rice, ant. Folk generally often do not correspond to scientific genera but may correspond to Linnaean species or families. For instance, “dog” is a folk genus, but “grass” is a Linnaean species folk genus, and a Linnaean family (actually a little less, since people generally do not recognize maize, etc. as grasses); “rice” is a folk genus, but two Linnaean; species and “ant” is a folk genus, but a Linnaean family, formicidae.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">4.3. Specific</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In some languages such as Spanish, Bahasa (spoken in Indonesia and Malaysia), the generic name comes first, as in a Linnaean name. In other languages such as English, it is the other way around. The specific name tends to be a pneumonic device, e.g., color, shape, utility, etc. that makes the name easy to remember.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">4.4 Varietal</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Common in crops such as the potato. Examples are papa imilla, papa imilla negra, and papa imilla blanca.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Farmer's Classification of Leaf Feeding Insects</span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Figure 1. Farmers’ classification of leaf feeding insects in Leyte, Philippines.</span></div></span> </span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Carolus Linnaeus, an 18th-century Swedish botanist, devised the system of binomial nomenclature used for naming species. In this system, each species is given a two-part Latin name, formed by appending a specific epithet to the genus name. By convention, the genus name is capitalized, and both the genus name and specific epithet are italicized, for Canis familiaris or simply C. familiaris. Modern taxonomy is currently in flux, and certain aspects of classification are being refined. This table shows one traditional classification of five species of life out of the estimated five million species of the world. This table shows one traditional classification of five species of life out of the estimated five million species of the world.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Common Name Kingdom Phylum* Class Order Family Genus Species</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">DomesticatedDog Animalia(animals) Chordata Mammalia Carnivora Canidae Canis C. familiaris</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Sugar Maple Plantae(plants) Magnoliophyta Rosidae Sapindales Aceraceae Acer A. saccharum</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Bread Mold Fungi(fungi) Zygomycota Zygomycetes Mucoralis Mucoraceae Rhizopus R. stolonifer</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">TuberculosisBacterium Prokaryotae(bacteria) Firmicutes Actinobacteria Actinomycetales Mycobacteriaceae Mycobacterium M. tuberculosis</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Pond Alga Protista(algae,diatoms) Chlorophyta Euconjugatae Zygnematalis Zygnemataceae Spirogyra S. crassa</span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In Sasak language is also found the folk taxonomy. For example the kinds of “House”, there are ‘Bale Balaq’, ‘Bale Pager’, ‘Bale Batu’, ‘Bale Betingkat’. Then, the kind of disease of Sasak language. Based on where the the diseases is felt. For example, ‘Sakit kaki’, ‘sakit jejengku’, ‘sakit tian’, ‘sakit angen’, ‘sakit dade’, ‘sakit belong’, and ‘sakit otak’. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">5. Color Terminology </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Color terminology has also been used to explore the relationship between different language and culture. Sometimes we cannot directly translate color words from one language to another without introducing subtle changes in meaning, e.g., English `brown` and French `brun`.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">All languages make use of basic color term. A basic color term must be a single word, e.g., blue or yellow, not some combination of words, e.g.,light blue or pole yellow. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">According to Berlin and Kay (1969) in Wardaugh, an analysis of the basic color terms found in a wide variety of languages reveals certain very interesting patterns. If a language has only two terms, they are for equivalents to black and white (or dark and light). If a third is added, it is red. The fourth and fifth terms will be yellow and green, but the other may be reserved. The sixth and seventh terms are blue and brown. Finally, as in English, come terms like grey, pink, orange, and purple, but not in any particular order. In this view there are only eleven basic color terms. All other terms for colors are combinations like greyish-brown, variation like scarlet, modifications like fire-engine red, and finally the kinds of designations favored by paint and cosmetic manufacturers. Wardaugh, 1998. Pp. 230)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Two points about color terminology seem particularly interesting. The color spectrum is an objective fact: it is “out there”, waiting to be dealt with cognitively. Apparently, human cognition is so alike everywhere that every one approaches the spectrum in the same way. Moreover, as cultural and technological change occur, it becomes more and more necessary for people to differentiate within the color spectrum. Instead of picking bits and pieces of spectrum at random as it were and naming them, people, no matter what languages they speak, progressively sub-devide the whole spectrum in a systematic way. The second points are that, if speakers of any language are asked to identify the parts of the spectrum, they find one system of such identification much easier to manipulate than another. They find it difficult to draw a line to separate that part of the spectrum they would call yellow from that part they would call orange, or similarly to separate blue from green. That is, assigning precise easy task for individuals nor one on which groups of individuals achieve a remarkable consensus. However, they do find it easy and they do reach a better consensus, if they are required to indicate some parts of the spectrum they would call typically orange, typically blue, or typically green. That is, they have consistent and uniform ideas about “typical” colors. Speakers of different languages exhibit such a behaviour always provided that the appropriate color terms are in their languages.(Wardaugh, 231) </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Color terminology also found in sasak terminology, for example the term “red” is means “abang” (in ngeno-ngene dialect) and “beaq” (in other four dialects). This color of “abang” can be “abang odak” , “abang toak”, “abang daraq”, and “lempok lomak”. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">6. Prototype Theory</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Prototype theory is also one easier account of which leads how people learn to use language, particularly linguistics concept. Hudson (1996, pp.75-8) believes that protype theory has much to offer sociolinguistics. According to him, prototype theory may even be applied to the social situation in which speech occurs. He suggests that, when we hear a new linguistic item, we associate with it that typically seems to use it and what, apparently, is the typical occasion of its use. Moreover, we need very few instances-even just a single one- to be able to do this. Prototype theory, then, offers us a possible way of looking not only at how concepts may be formed, for example, at the cognitive dimensions of linguistic behavior, but also at how we achieve our social competence in the use of language.(Wardhaugh, 1998, pp.232-233)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Rosch (1976) in Wardhaugh (1998) has proposed an alternative to the view that concept are composed from sets of features which define instances of a concept necessarily and sufficiently. He proposes that concepts are best viewed as prototype. For example, a bird is not best defined by reference to a set of features that refer to such matters as wings, warm bloodedness, and egg laying characteristics, but rather by reference to typical instances. Thus, a `prototypical bird` is something more like a robin than it is likea toucan, penguin, ostrich, or even eagle.(Wardhaugh,232)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Most experiments has shown that people do classify quite consistently objects of various kinds based on what they regard as being typical instance. For example, (1) furniture; a chair is a typical term of furniture, an ashtray is not, (2) fruit; apples and plums are typical term of fruit, coconuts and olives are not, and (3) clothing; coats and trousers are typical term of clothing, bracelets and purses are not ( Clark and Clark , 1977 in Wardhaugh, p. 232)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">7. Taboo and Euphemism</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In one sense, language is used to express cultural meaning. But in other sense, it is used to avoid saying certain things and express them in other expression. Certain things are not said, not because they cannot be, but because people don`t talk about those things, or if those things are talked about, they are talked about in very roundabout ways. In the first case we have instances of linguistic taboo; in the second we have the employment of euphemism so as to avoid mentioning certain matters directly. (Wardhaugh, p.234)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">A taboo is a strong social prohibition (or ban) relating to any area of human activity or social custom that is sacred and forbidden based on moral judgement and sometimes even religious beliefs. Breaking the taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent by society. The term comes from the Tongan language, and appears in many Polynesian cultures. In those cultures, a tabu (or tapu or kapu) often has specific religious associations. When an activity or custom is a taboo, it is forbidden and interdictions are implemented concerning it, such as the ground set apart as a sanctuary for criminals. Some taboo activities or customs are prohibited under law and transgressions may lead to severe penalties. Other taboos result in embarrassment, shame, and rudeness. Although critics and/or dissenters may oppose taboos, they are put into place to avoid disrespect to any given authority, be it legal, moral and/or religious.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Common etymology traces taboo to the Tongan word tapu or the Fijian word tabu] meaning "under prohibition", "not allowed", or "forbidden". In its current use in Tonga, the word tapu also means "sacred" or "holy", often in the sense of being restricted or protected by custom or law. In the main island of the Kingdom of Tonga, where the greater portion of the population reside within the capital Nuku'alofa, the word is often appended to the end of "Tonga", making the word "Tongatapu", where local use it as "Sacred South" rather than "forbidden south".</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Taboos can include dietary restrictions (halal and kosher diets, religious vegetarianism, and the prohibition of cannibalism), restrictions on sexual activities and relationships (sex outside of marriage, adultery, intermarriage, miscegenation, homosexuality, incest, animal-human sex, adult-child sex, sex with the dead), restrictions of bodily functions (burping, flatulence, restrictions on the use of psychoactive drugs, restrictions on state of genitalia such as circumcision or sex reassignment), exposure of body parts (ankles in the Victorian British Empire, women's hair in parts of the Middle East, nudity in the US), and restrictions on the use of offensive language.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">No taboo is known to be universal, but some (such as the cannibalism, exposing of intimate parts, intentional homicide, and incest taboos) occur in the majority of societies. Taboos may serve many functions, and often remain in effect after the original reason behind them has expired. Some have argued that taboos therefore reveal the history of societies when other records are lacking.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In regard to linguistic taboo, there has been a considerable change since the late twentieth century. The decline may have been more increasing in the use of euphemistic language. Euphemistic words and expressions allow us to talk about unpleasant things and disguise or neutralize the unpleasentness, e.g. the subject os sickness, death, unemployment, and criminality. They also allow us to give labels to unpleasant tasks and jobs in an attempt to make them sound almost attractive. Euphemism is endemic in our society: the glorification of the commonplace and the elevation of the trivial.(Wardhaugh, 235)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In conclusion, taboo and euphemism affect us all. We may not be deeply conscious of the effects, but affect us they do.We all probably have a few things we refuse to talk about and still others we do not talk about directly. We may have some words we know but never-or hardly ever- use because they are too emotional for either us or others. Awhile we may find some thought too deep for words, others we definitely take care not to express at all even though we know the words, or else we express ourselves on them very indirectly. (Wardhaugh, 236)</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In Sasak the relation between language and culture can also be shown by taboo. Some taboos are based on the religious concept, some are based on custom and traditional belief, and some are based on moral judgment. There are some kinds of taboo in Sasak language based on religion concept, for example, dietary restrictions. For Sasak people, especially Muslim Sasak, it is forbidden to eat certain animals like dog, pig, and etc. Also, it is taboo to take the oath like “Bani Haram”, “Bani Pekek”, “ Bani Bedok”, and etc. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Based on traditional belief, it is taboo for Sasak People to say “ Antih aku” when the people pass through forest or big river because it is believed that if someone say “antih aku” in the forest, there will be a wild animal that waits for him, or if someone say ‘antih aku’ in the river there will be crocodile that waits for him. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Meanwhile, based on moral judgment or moral value of Sasak, it is taboo to mention directly the name of genitalia. For example “Lesek” for man and “Pepek” for woman. But these two words can be replaced by “Perabot dengan mame” and “Perabot dengan nine”. So in this case, we use euphemism to replace the word taboo as mentioned about. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">8. Conclusion</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">1. There are some theories related to the relationship between language and culture. One theory stated that language influenced culture and the way of thought of the society in which the language is used. This theory is called Whorfian Hypothesis. Other said that language is much influenced by culture and as a part of culture. The other one stated that language and culture are two different things that have a very close relation.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">2. There are various ways in which language and culture have been claimed to be closely related. They are kinship system, color terminology, taxonomies, and taboo and euphemism.</span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Chaer, Abdul and Agustina, Leonie. 2010. Sociolinguistics : Perkenalan Awal. Rineka Cipta. Jakarta</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Finegan, Edward, Besiner, Niko, Blair, David and Collins, Peter. 1992. Language `It`s Structure and Use` .Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Group Ltd. Australia.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Mifflin,H.2000 `Taxonomy Life` taken from http://www. Answers.com/topic/Taxonomy.xzz lackyqih B/;Monday, October 3th, 09.00 PM.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Sumarsono, M.Ed, Dr, Prof. 2009. Sosiolinguistik. Pustaka Fajar, Sabda. Cileban Timur, Yogyakarta.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1998. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Third edition. Blackwell Publishers Ltd. UK</span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div> <div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div> <div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-10881218216567701572012-04-25T20:42:00.001-07:002012-04-25T20:45:53.804-07:00LANGUAGE AND GENDER<div style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span >A. INTRODUCTION</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Language and gender is an area of study within sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, and related field that investigates varieties of speech associated with a particular gender, or social norms for such gendered language use. A variety of speech (or sociolect) associated with a particular gender is sometimes called a genderlect.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Wardhaugh (2002) stated that a major topic in sociolinguistics is the connection between structures, vocabularies, and ways of using particular languages and the social roles of men and women who speak the language. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Issues about gender and language have a long history but its status as fields of research developed alongside the second wave of feminism during the 1960s and 1970s (Weatherall, 2002). Based on these issues, this article will explain; the term sex and gender, dominance and difference, gender and speech style, speech practices associated with gender, and cross gender conversation.</span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">B. THE TERM “SEX AND GENDER”</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Sex is a biological condition which defined as a set of physical characteristics. However, Gender is a social construct (within the fields of cultural and gender studies, and the social sciences. Kaminer (1998) stated that general usage of the term gender began in the late 1960s and 1970s, increasingly appearing in the professional literature of the social sciences. The term helps in distinguishing those aspects of life that were more easily attributed or understood to be of social rather than biological origin. According to Aristotle, the Greek philosopher Protagoras used the terms masculine, feminine, and neuter to classify nouns, introducing the concept of grammatical gender. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Wardhaugh (2002) further stated that sex is a very large extent biologically determined whereas gender is a social construct involving the whole gamut of genetic, psychological, social, and cultural differences between males and females. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">While, Camereon in Wardaugh (2002) also stated that Men and women are members of cultures in which a large amount of discourse about gender is constantly circulating. They do not only learn , and then mechanically reproduce, ways of speaking ‘appropriate’ to their own sex; they learn a much broader set of gendered meanings that attach in rather complex ways to different ways of speaking, and they produce their own behavior in the light of these meaning.</span></div></span></span><span class="fullpost"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">C. DOMINANCE AND DIFFERENCE </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Studies of language and gender often make use of two models or paradigms - that of dominance and that of difference. The first is associated with Dale Spender, Pamela Fishman, Don Zimmerman and Candace West, while the second is associated with Deborah Tannen. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">1. Dominance theory</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">This is the theory that in mixed-sex conversations men are more likely to interrupt than women. It uses a fairly old study of a small sample of conversations, recorded by Don Zimmerman and Candace West at the Santa Barbara campus of the University of California in 1975. The subjects of the recording were white, middle class and under 35. Zimmerman and West produce in evidence 31 segments of conversation. They report that in 11 conversations between men and women, men used 46 interruptions, but women only two. As Geoffrey Beattie, of Sheffield University, points out (writing in New Scientist magazine in 1982): "The problem with this is that you might simply have one very voluble man in the study which has a disproportionate effect on the total." From their small (possibly unrepresentative) sample Zimmerman and West conclude that, since men interrupt more often, then they are dominating or attempting to do so. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Fortunately for the language student, there is no need closely to follow the very sophisticated philosophical and ethical arguments that Dale Spender erects on her interpretation of language. But it is reasonable to look closely at the sources of her evidence - such as the research of Zimmerman and West. Geoffrey Beattie claims to have recorded some 10 hours of tutorial discussion and some 557 interruptions (compared with 55 recorded by Zimmerman and West). Beattie found that women and men interrupted with more or less equal frequency (men 34.1, women 33.8) - so men did interrupt more, but by a margin so slight as not to be statistically significant. </span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">2. Deborah Tannen and difference</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Professor Tannen has summarized her book You Just Don't Understand in an article in which she represents male and female language use in a series of six contrasts. These are: </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Status vs. support</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Independence vs. intimacy</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Advice vs. understanding</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Information vs. feelings</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Orders vs. proposals</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Conflict vs. compromise</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">a) Status versus support</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Men grow up in a world in which conversation is competitive - they seek to achieve the upper hand or to prevent others from dominating them. For women, however, talking is often a way to gain confirmation and support for their ideas. Men see the world as a place where people try to gain status and keep it. Women see the world as “a network of connections seeking support and consensus”. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">b) Independence versus intimacy</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Women often think in terms of closeness and support, and struggle to preserve intimacy. Men, concerned with status, tend to focus more on independence. These traits can lead women and men to starkly different views of the same situation. Professor Tannen gives the example of a woman who would check with her husband before inviting a guest to stay - because she likes telling friends that she has to check with him. The man, meanwhile, invites a friend without asking his wife first, because to tell the friend he must check amounts to a loss of status. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">c) Advice versus understanding</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Deborah Tannen claims that, too many men a complaint is a challenge to find a solution. For example; when a wife tells a husband that she doesn't feel well, her husband will invariably offers to take her to the doctor. Men are likely giving advice rather than giving sympathy to show his understanding. Invariably, the woman is disappointed with his reaction. Like many men, he is focused on what he can do, whereas women want sympathy.</span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">d) Information versus feelings</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">A young man makes a brief phone call. His mother overhears it as a series of grunts. Later she asks him about it - it emerges that he has arranged to go to a specific place, where he will play football with various people and he has to take the ball. A young woman makes a phone call - it lasts half an hour or more. The mother asks about it - it emerges that she has been talking “you know” “about stuff”. The conversation has been mostly grooming-talk and comment on feelings. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Historically, men's concerns were seen as more important than those of women, but today this situation may be reversed so that the giving of information and brevity of speech are considered of less value than sharing of emotions and elaboration. From the viewpoint of the language student neither is better (or worse) in any absolute sense. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">e) Orders versus proposals</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Women often suggest that people do things in indirect ways - “let's”, “why don't we?” or “wouldn't it be good, if we...?” Men may use, and prefer to hear, a direct imperative. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">f) Conflict versus compromise</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">“In trying to prevent fights,” writes Professor Tannen “some women refuse to oppose the will of others openly. But sometimes it's far more effective for a woman to assert herself, even at the risk of conflict. ” This situation is easily observed in work-situations where a management decision seems unattractive - men will often resist it vocally, while women may appear to accede, but complain subsequently. Of course, this is a broad generalization - and for every one of Deborah Tannen's oppositions, we will know of men and women who are exceptions to the norm. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Report talk and rapport talk </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Deborah Tannen's distinction of information and feelings is also described as report talk (of men) and rapport talk (of women). The differences can be summarized in a table: </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Women Men </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Talk too much </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Speak in private contexts </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Build relations </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Overlap </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Speak symmetrically • Get more air time </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Speak in public </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Negotiate status/avoid failure </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Speak one at a time </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Speak asymmetrically </span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">D. SPEECH PRACTICES ASSOCIATED WITH GENDER</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">1. Minimal responses</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">One of the ways in which the communicative behavior of men and women differ is in their use of minimal responses, i.e., paralinguistic features such as ‘mhm’ and ‘yeah’, which is behavior associated with collaborative language use. Men, on the other hand, generally use them less frequently and where they do, it is usually to show agreement, as Don Zimmerman and Candace West’s study of turn-taking in conversation indicates.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">While the above can be true in some contexts and situations, studies that dichotomize the communicative behavior of men and women may run the risk of over-generalization. For example, "minimal responses appear "throughout streams of talk", such as "mm" or "yeah", not only function to display active listening and interest and are not always signs of "support work", as Fishman (1978) claims. They can - as more detailed analysis of minimal responses show -- signal understanding, demonstrate agreement, indicate skepticism or a critical attitude, demand clarification or show surprise". In other words, both male and female participants in a conversation can employ these minimal responses for interactive functions, rather than gender-specific functions.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">2. Questions</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Men and women differ in their use of questions in conversations. For men, a question is usually a genuine request for information whereas with women it can often be a rhetorical means of engaging the other’s conversational contribution or of acquiring attention from others conversationally involved, techniques associated with a collaborative approach to language use. Therefore women use questions more frequently. In writing, however, both genders use rhetorical questions as literary devices. For example, Mark Twain used them in "A War Prayer" to provoke the reader to question his actions and beliefs. Tag questions are frequently used to verify or confirm information; though in women’s language they may also be used to avoid making strong statements.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">3. Turn-taking</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">As the work of Victoria De Francisco shows, female linguistic behavior characteristically encompasses a desire to take turns in conversation with others, which is opposed to men’s tendency towards centering on their own point or remaining silent when presented with such implicit offers of conversation. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">4. Changing the topic of conversation</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">According to Bruce Dorval in his study of same-sex friend interaction, males tend to change subject more frequently than females. This difference may well be at the root of the conception that women chatter and talk too much, and may still trigger the same thinking in some males. In this way lowered estimation of women may arise. Incidentally, this andocentric attitude towards women as chatterers arguably arose from the idea that any female conversation was too much talking according to the patriarchal consideration of silence as a womanly virtue common to many cultures. Goodwin (1990) observes that girls and women link their utterances to previous speakers and develop each other topics, rather than introducing new topics. However, a study of young American couples and their interactions reveal that while women raise twice as many topics as men but it is the men's topics that are usually taken up and subsequently elaborated in the conversation.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">5. Self-disclosure</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Female tendencies toward self-disclosure, i.e., sharing their problems and experiences with others, often to offer sympathy, contrasts with male tendencies to non-self disclosure and professing advice or offering a solution when confronted with another’s problems. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">6. Verbal aggression</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Men tend to be more verbally aggressive in conversing, frequently using threats, profanities, yelling and name-calling. Women, on the whole, deem this to disrupt the flow of conversation and not as a means of upholding one’s hierarchical status in the conversation. Where women swear, it is usually to demonstrate to others what normal behavior is for them. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">However, the correlation between males and verbal aggression may not apply across different societies and cultures. For examples, Kulick (1992) shows how this stereotype regarding verbal aggression is subverted in his study of two different speech genres in Gapun, Papua New Guinea. Women engage in kros, or "angry talk", which is typically characterized by vituperative and brazen displays of insults and shouting. Conversely, the men partake in men's house talk, which is focused on the down play of conflict in order to maintain - or at least give - the illusion of harmony. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">7. Listening and attentiveness</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">It appears that women attach more weight than men to the importance of listening in conversation, with its connotations of power to the listener as confidant of the speaker. This attachment of import by women to listening is inferred by women’s normally lower rate of interruption — i.e., disrupting the flow of conversation with a topic unrelated to the previous one — and by their largely increased use of minimal responses in relation to men. Men, however, interrupt far more frequently with non-related topics, especially in the mixed sex setting and, far from rendering a female speaker's responses minimal, are apt to greet her conversational spotlights with silence, as the work of Victoria DeFrancisco demonstrates.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">8. Dominance versus subjection</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">This, in turn, suggests a dichotomy between a male desire for conversational dominance – noted by Helena Leet-Pellegrini with reference to male experts speaking more verbosely than their female counterparts – and a female aspiration to group conversational participation. One corollary of this is, according to Jennifer Coates, that males are afforded more attention in the context of the classroom and that this can lead to their gaining more attention in scientific and technical subjects, which in turn can lead to their achieving better success in those areas, ultimately leading to their having more power in a technocratic society.</span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">9. Politeness</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Lakoff (1975) identified three forms of politeness: formal, deference, and camaraderie. Women's language is characterized by formal and deference politeness, whereas men’s language is exemplified by camaraderie.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Politeness in speech is described in terms of positive and negative face. Positive face refers to one's desire to be liked and admired, while negative face refers to one's wish to remain autonomous and not to suffer imposition. Both forms, according to Penelope Brown’s study of the Tzeltal language, are used more frequently by women whether in mixed or single-sex pairs, suggesting for Brown a greater sensitivity in women than have men to face the needs of others. In short, women are to all intents and purposes largely more polite than men. However, negative face politeness can be potentially viewed as weak language because of its associated hedges and tag questions, a view propounded by O’Barr and Atkins (1980) in their work on courtroom interaction.</span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">E. GENDER AND SPEECH STYLE</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Goddard and Patterson (2000) stated that the first linguist who wrote the differences about male and female language was Otto Japerson. His book entitled Language: its Nature, Development and Origin (1922) described men are seen as the norm and women as departing from that norm in various ways-as being deviant. He further explained that women are seen as having limited vocabularies: ‘the vocabulary of a woman as a rule is much less extensive than that of man’. They are also describes as being rather delicate, easily offended and oblique.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Lakoff in 1975 is one of feminist who gave critique to Japerson view. Her central point was that women were socialized into sounding like ‘ladies’ because woman has power as the man has. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Lakoff's writings have become the basis for much research on the subject of women's language. Her famous work, Language and Woman's Place, introduced to the field of sociolinguistics many ideas about women's language that are now commonplace. She proposed (Language and Woman's Place) that women's speech can be distinguished from that of men in a number of ways, including:</span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Hedge: using phrases like “sort of”, “kind of”, “it seems like”, and so on. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Use (super) polite forms: “Would you mind...”, “I'd appreciate it if...”, “...if you don't mind”. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Use tag questions: “You're going to dinner, aren't you?” </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Speak in italics: intentional emphasis equal to underlining words - so, very, quite. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Use empathy adjectives: divine, lovely, adorable, and so on </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Use hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation: English prestige grammar and clear enunciation. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Use direct quotation: men paraphrase more often. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Have a special lexicon: women use more words for things like colors, men for sports. </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Use question intonation in declarative statements: women make declarative statements into questions by raising the pitch of their voice at the end of a statement, expressing uncertainty. For example, “What school do you attend? Eton College?” </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Use “wh-” imperatives: (such as, “Why don't you open the door?”) </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Speak less frequently </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Overuse qualifiers: (for example, “I think that...”) </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Apologize more: (for instance, “I'm sorry, but I think that...”) </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Use modal constructions: (such as can, would, should, ought - “Should we turn up the heat?”) </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Avoid coarse language or expletives </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Use indirect commands and requests: (for example, “My, isn't it cold in here?” - really a request to turn the heat on or close a window) </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Use more intensifiers: especially so and very (for instance, “I am so glad you came!”) </span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">• Lack a sense of humor: women do not tell jokes well and often don't understand the punch line of jokes. </span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">F.CROSS GENDER CONVERSATION</span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">When we turn to matters having to do with how men and women use language in a wider sense, the possible explanation of these differences is in social interaction in conversations involving both men and women many researchers agree that men speak more than woman do. One also found that when men talked to men, the content categories of such talk focused on competition and teasing, sports, aggression, and doing things. On the other hand, when woman talked to women, the equivalent categories were the self, feelings, affiliation with others, home and family. Wardaugh (2002: 322) stated that when the two genders interacted, men tended to take the initiative in conversation, but there seem to be a desire to achieve some kind of accommodation so far as topics were concerned: the men spoke less aggressively and competitively and the women reduce their amount of talk about home and family.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Women are expected to use and do use talk to a greater extent than men to serve the function of establishing and maintaining personal relationships (this is not surprising, as the responsibility for the interpersonal relationships primarily rests with women); for example women, to a greater extent than men, are expected to talk, and do talk, simply in order to keep the interaction flowing smoothly and to show goodwill toward others, and they are expected to talk, and do talk, about personal feelings and other socioemotional matters relevant to interpersonal relationships to a greater extent than men. What is particular important in female friendships is the sharing of intimate feelings and confidences through talk, whereas in male friendship the sharing of activities is more important.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Another interesting claim is that in cross-gender conversations men frequently interrupt women but women much less frequently interrupt men (Zimmerman and west, 1975 in Wardaugh, 2002). They further stated that there are three claims of interest that must be seen in analyzing cross-gender conversation. The first claim is that men and women are biologically different and that this difference has serious consequences for gender. Women are somehow predisposed psychologically to be involved with one another and to be supportive and non-competitive. While, men are innately predisposed to independence. The second claim is that social organization is the best perceived as some kind of hierarchical set of power relationship. Language behavior reflects the social dominance of men. And the third claim is men and women are social being who have learned to act in certain ways. Language behavior is largely learned behavior. As society subjects, men and women have different life experiences.</span></div></span> </span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">G. CONCLUSION</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Gender and sex are different. Sex refers to biological characteristics, and gender is a term to classify nouns such as masculine, feminine, and neuter to introduce the concept of grammatical.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">There are two paradigms in studying gender. They are dominance and difference. In this case, dominance is the theory in which men are more likely to interrupt than women. However, according Tannen there are six contrast between male and female language; status vs support, independence vs intimacy, advice vs understanding, information vs feeling, orders vs proposals, and conflict vs compromise.</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">In communication, women and men are used different languages. The differences can be seen from their speech style, their speech practice and cross gender conversation. Lakof in her book entitled “Language and Woman’s Place” proposed some differences between women and men speech style. The differences includes hedge, use of polite form, tag question, and soon. The points focus in the topic of conversation, self disclosure, verbal aggression, listen and attentiveness, dominance vs subjection and politeness. Men and women are also different in their conversation. It will be different based on the topic they are discussed. Women tend to discuss about home and family. However, men like to discuss about sports, politics, competition and teasing.</span></div></span> </span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div> <div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">REFERENCES</span></div></span><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">……….Language and Gender. http://semantics.uchicago.edu/kennedy/classes/sum07/myths/myths4-gender.pdf</span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">………Language and Gender. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language and Gender</span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Goddard, A and Patterson,L. 2000. Language and Gender.London: Routledge Inc</span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Lakoff,R .1975. Language and Woman Place. New York: Harper and Row</span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Wardaugh,Ronald.1998. An introduction to Sociolinguistics. USA: Blackwell Publisher.Inc</span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><span ><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Weatherall,Ann. 2002. Gender, Language, Discourse; USA: Routledge Inc. </span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-26189072547271893482012-01-05T01:08:00.000-08:002012-01-05T01:13:32.432-08:00PRAGMATICS PERFORMATIVE<div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >I.BACKGROUND</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Before talking about performative theory, it is important to talk about the classification of sentence which is proposed by structure traditional linguists. According to structure traditional linguists, there are three types of sentences; (1) declarative sentence, (2) interrogative sentence, and (3) imperative sentence. Declarative sentence is a sentence that contains thing which is used to ask listener to pay attention only, not to do anything because the speaker’s goal is just to tell the listener only. Interrogative sentence is a sentence that has content to ask the listener to answer the question orally. Therefore, the speaker not only asks for attention but also ask for question. While imperative sentence is a sentence that has content to ask the listener to give a compliment in the form of action, the speaker asks the listener to do something (Chaer, 2004:50).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >One of philosophers, Austin (1962), differentiated declarative sentence, based on its meaning, into performative and constative utterance. The saying of an utterance which is used to do something as such example is called performative utterance. Performative sentence or utterance is derived from “perform”, the usual verb with the noun ‘action’ which indicate that expressing of the utterance is to perform or to do an action beside to say something. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Performative utterance is an utterance that shows an action have been done by the speaker. By expressing the utterance, the action is accomplished at that time too. For example: in utterance ‘I express my thank’, the speaker expresses and accomplishes the action ‘express’ (Kridalaksana, 1984:2001). Performative (in speech act theory): an utterance which performs an act, such as watch out (=warning), I promise not to be late (=a promise). It is said shortly that performative utterance is an utterance to perform the action.</span></div><span class="fullpost"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Performative utterance is not evaluated as true or false, but as felicitous or infelicitous. For example:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >• I promise that I shall be there.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >• I do (take this woman to be my lawful wedded wife)- as uttered in the course of the marriage ceremony.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >• I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth. This sentence is uttered when smashing the bottle against the stern.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >• I give and bequeath my watch to my brother. (The act of bequeathing).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >• I bet you Mike Tyson will win. (The act of betting).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >• I apologize for coming late. (The act of apologizing).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >• I express my special thanks to your kindness. (The act of thinking).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >• I pronounce you husband and wife. (The act of marrying).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >• I go now. (The act of going).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The examples given all share several qualities. They all include a particular type of verb- a performative verb- that realizes a particular action when uttered in a specific context: such a contex can include setting (a marriage ceremony, writing a will), physical objects (a ship, legal documents), and institutional identities. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Constative utterance on the other hand is an utterance which is used to describe or to examine event, process, circumstance, etc. and it characteristic is true or false (Kridalaksana, 1984:2001). For example: </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Mr. John Smith is our lecture.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. Ali goes to market.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. I slept at hotel, etc. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >However, through this paper, we will see that Leech views contrast with the above classification of performative and we will see the arguments who again and support such views. Some examples of performtive views will be explored in this paper.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >II. DISSCUSSION</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2.1 THE FORMATIVE AND ILLOCUTIONARY – VERB FALLACIES</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Leech proposes his different argument about two theses which he considered as fallacies, and which have influenced thinking about illocutionary force, particularly through the work of Austin and Searle. The illocutionary verb-fallacy according to Leech is the view that the analysis of illocutionary force can be suitably approached through the analysis of the meaning of illocutionary verbs such as advises, command, and promise. This is considered as fallacy by Leech because Leech’s argument is the meaning of illocutionary verb as a part of grammar has to be analyzed categorically. On the other hand, the illocutionary force as a part of pragmatic has to be analyzed in rhetorical and noncategorical terms. When we are analyzing illocutionary verbs, we are dealing with grammar, whereas when we are analyzing the illocutionary force of utterances, we are dealing with pragmatics.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >There is one case of illocutionary-verb fallacy which is called performative fallacy. This thesis says that performative, a sentence that contains explicit performative verb is the general principle to explain the force of other utterances. This fallacy arouses an assumption that the meaning of nonperformative sentence can be made explicit by adding some performative prelude. For example:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. He did not do it. (implicit nonperformatve)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. I state that he did not do it. ( explicit performative)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. I maintain that he did not do it. (explicit performative)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >What is considered as a fallacy by Leech is sentence one is equivalent to sentence two or three.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Another special case of the performative fallacy is the performative hypothesis of Ross (1970) and others, that the main verb of the underlying semantic structure of every sentence is a performative, ie that deep down in its </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >deep structure. In the case of those sentences, every sentence like (1) has a form something like (2a).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2.2 THE SPEECH ACT THEORIES OF AUSTIN AND SEARLE</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >According to Leech, both Austin and Searle flirt with the performative fallacy and end up embracing the illocutionary –verb fallacy. In the following are the history of performative utterances based on Austin and Searle.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The original idea in Austin’s How to do things with words (1962) was that performative utterances are fundamentally different from constative utterances. Whereas constative utterances could be evaluated in traditional terms of truth and falsehood, performative were neither true nor false: instead, they were to be regarded as felicitous and non-felicitous. But examples such as (1) and (2a) above led Austin to the eventual conclusion that all utterances are performative in the sense of constituting a form of action, rather than simply a matter of saying something about the world. For example: (1) I promise that I shall be there, (2) I shall be there.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Finally, Austin concluded that all regular utterances like (3) and (4), whether they have a performative verb or not, there is both a ‘doing’ element and a ‘saying’ element; that conclusion led Austin to differentiate between locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. Finally he classified the illovcutionary acts into verdictive, exercitives, commisives, behabitives, and expositives. This classification is a prime example of what Leech has said as illocutionary- verb fallacy.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The examples of illocutionary acts based on Austin category:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Verdictives: used to say decision or assessment.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Example: I state that the defendant is guilty </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. Excercitives is a sentence used to say advice, warning, hope, etc.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Example: I hope you agree with this decision. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. Commissives is a sentence that is characterized by an appointment</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Example: I promise to see you </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. Expositives: used to explain something. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Example: I explain you that he is not guilty </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >5. Behatitives: a sentence relates with social attitude because someone get good or bad thing. Example: I congratulate on your success </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2.3 DECLARATIONS</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Declaration (according to Searle) is a special category of speech act because they are performed by someone who is authorized. For example: in case of naming a ship (I name this ship), making a vow (I vow), sentencing a criminal (I sentence you to death), or of bidding at an auction is performed (I vow), etc.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Declaration has special characteristics; </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Declaration is done by someone who has special authority.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. Declaration does not involve politeness principle.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2.4 ILLOCUTIONARY PERFORMATIVE: DESCRIPTIVE AND NON-DESCRIPTIVE APPROACHES</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >We have seen that performative is the most explicit form of illocutionary act. Semantically, the performative itself has special characteristics:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. The verb of the main clause is an illocutionary verb.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. This verb is in the simple present tense.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. The subject of this verb is in the first person.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. The indirect object of this verb is you.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >5. Optionally, this verb is preceded by the adverb hereby.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >6. The verb is followed (except in elliptical cases) by a reported-speech clause. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >For example: </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. I order you to stand up.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. I impere you to sit down.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. I sentence you to death.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. I maintain that the United Nations is nothing but a talking-shop.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >5. I hereby agree with you that the United Nations is just a talking- shop.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Related to illocutionary performative, there are two views are descriptive and non-descriptive views. A descriptive view is carried by Leech, etc., while non-descriptive views are carried by Austin, and Searle.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Arguments of Descriptivist:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Performative does not underly every single utterance.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. Does not contrast between performative and constative utterance because performaive is a special category of speech act.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. Performative can be denied in a special circumstance.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. Performative is subset of oratio oblique proposition.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >5. Adopt a complementarist position, arguing that the peculiarity of performative is predictable from their sense and the relation between sense and force.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >On the other hand, the arguments of non-descriptivist are:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Performative underlay every single utterance.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. Performative is different with constative utterance.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. Performative can not be denied.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. The similarities between performative and oratio oblique are fortuitous.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >5. Adopts a semanticist position, maintaining that peculiarity of performatives is a matter of their fundamental logical status.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2.5 ILLOCUTIONARY PERFORMATIVES AND ORATIO OBLIQUA</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Actually, most of illocutionary performative is the same with oratio obliqua utterances which is necessary called indirect speech and paralleled with performative, example:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >- I will telephone you.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >This utterance is not complex because as a direct speech and the pronouns of I and you refer respectively to each other. It is differently with the utterance below:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >- Bill assured Pat that he would telephone her.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The example above is a inderect speech or oratio obliqua which looks more complex representation. It is also available of primary speech situation and the secondary speech situation. Leech derives it as first utterance and second utterance. “First utterance is in Bill assured Pat that he would telephone her”, and the second utterance is that he would telephone her. The same case can also be found in the sentence below:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >- I assure you that I’ll telephone you.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The identity of the primary and secondary speech situation is shown by the U1 and U2 on the sentence above. And the secondary utterance (U2) can be identified on I’ll telephone you.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >A. Time of Primary Situation = Time of Secondary Situation</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The illocutionary verb is in the present tense seems to mean that it describes a speech act taking place at the present time, in example at the time of the primary speech act. But this is not the whole explanation. A verb in the present tense need not refer to an event happening at the time of speech, as is </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >clear from an example like I knock off work early on Fridays. This sentence is likely to be uttered at a time other that knocking-off time on a Friday, and it is not likely that the event of uttering the sentence itself. The reason, clearly, is that the sentence has a habitual interpretation.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >There is also, a non-habitual or punctual interpretation of the present tense with action verbs. This instantaneous present means that the event described takes place (ex: begins and ends) at the very time of speaking, and for pragmatic reasons, this in turn tends to imply that the event described is brief. Thus, the instantaneous sense of the present tense occurs for example in sport commentaries as in Zidane passes the ball to Henry, but not in the description of longer events. It is done only in that short time. The other example is “he reads a book” must be given a habitual interpretation, whereas He is reading a book, which refers to an actual present activity, also implies that the activity has been in progress before the moment of speech, and will continue in progress after it.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Another kind of situation in which the ‘instantaneous present’ occurs is in the enactment of ceremonies, where the speaker performs a ritual action and describes himself as performing it at the same time:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >a) I give this ring (gives ring) - in a marriage ceremony.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >b) I sign you with the cross (makes the sign) - in a baptism</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >c) I declare the meeting open </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >d) Saya nikahkan kamu (I marry you) - in Islam religion or marriage ceremony.</span></div> <div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >B. U1 = U2 (Primary Utterance = Secondary Utterance)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >This equation can be seen on the example below:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >I told her: ‘I’ll telephone you later.’</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >(direct speech)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >I promised her that I’d telephone her later</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >(Oratio obliqua)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >With direct speech, the reporter is committed to giving a verbatim report of what was said; in oratio obliqua, he is not so committed rather, he is committed to giving a description of the utterance’s meaning. Unlike the both example above, could be a correct report of an utterance such as O. K., I’ll phone you in a few minutes, or Don’t worry-I’ll call you around eight. There is no need for the words used in the secondary utterance to appear in the primary utterance. It remains to be shown that U1 = U2 is plausible not only on grammatical, but on pragmatic grounds. So, oratio boliqua is metapropositional rather than strictly metalinguistic.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2.6 THE PRAGMATICS OF ILLOCUTIONARY PERFORMATIVES </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >In this sub tittle, the perfomative theory is possible to be described and not only plausible interpretation but also accepts the present tense of the performative verb as non-habitual. Then the performative can be direved into several properties as like semantically, pragmatically and performative itself.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Semantically, it is a proposition with a present-tense verb, and is ambiguous between the habitual and instantaneous interpretations. But pragmatically, it is a self-naming utterance which has the force indicated by its main verb. Thus the performative wears its illocutionary heart on its sleeve, whereas for non pragmatically (in example is implicit rather than explicit).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Then, the relation of a performative to its non-performative analogue:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >- I admit that Gus is greedy</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >- Gus is greedy</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >This relation has been assumed to be one of equivalence, and has thereby been made much of in standard treatments of performatives, the first point to make here is that in the complementarist view, as has been made clear, this is not an equivalence relation. It just a kind of rough equivalence like the example above the first sentence note that the speaker commits himself to the truth of the proposition that ‘Gus is greedy’. Then the performative is semantically a proposition, the derivation of its force from its sense follows </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >the pattern already proposed for affirmative declarative utterance. in this way, the descriptive view of performatives accords with the observation that</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >a. Performatives are often partly equivalent to their non-performative analogues, but</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >b. Performatives express additional meaning which, if conveyed at all, is only conveyed implicitly by their non-performative analogues.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2.7 THE PERFORMATIVE HYPOTHESIS</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The illocutionary – verb Fallacy apply a fortiori to the performative hypothesis of Ross (1970) and others is quite different with Leech’s hypothesis. The difference is, depend on Leech, performative must be structurally; indirect speech or oratio obliqua. But for the other linguist almost each of sentence has a performative value. As already expalined, the hypothesis that in its underlying structure, every sentence has a higher clause with the properties of a performative. For example: Be careful. It has a value or meaning behind the utterance, that is I (impere you [that you be careful]). Here impere is meant to be a generalized imperative verb: the actual identity of the performative verb, or even whether it has an overtd surface-structure form at all, is not essential to the hypothesis. The equivalence between the performative and its non-performative analogue is here achieved by the straight forward device of syntactic transformation. Actually Ross only continues the opinion of Austin and derived also by Searle, Sadock, etc.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Thus, although there would be no point in marshalling either old or new arguments against the hypothesis here, there is some value in briefly considering why the performative hypothesis arose, and why the obvious appeal it had for many linguists in the early 1970s did not persist. The origininal arguments in favour of te hypothesis were regarded as ‘syntactic’ arguments, like Ross admitted that the performative hypothesis could be replaced by a ‘pragmatic hypothesis’ which would be as expalanatory as the </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >performative hypothesis. Once, this step had been taken, the performative hypothesis would have be come unnecessary. But for many linguists of the early 1970s it was difficult to conceive of any linguistic explanation which did not take place within the framework of grammar. Hence Ross’s correct insight – that the pragmatic hypothesis would be preferable to the performative hypothesis – was subsequntly ignored both by himself and by others.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >On the other hand, Leech’s performative hypothesis can be simplified that</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Indirect force can be adequately represented by performative verb-an approach which difference with the subtlety of indirectness </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. It treats the distinction between direct and indirect force </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. No attempt is made to give a functional motivation for the relation between sense and force </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2.8 THE EXTENDED PERFORMATIVE HYPOTHESIS</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Variant of performatives is the most extreme manifestation to be developed detail by Sadock (1974) and also in Cole and Morgan (1975). They are called the extended performative hypothesis. This is the hypothesis that the illocutionary force not only of a direct speech act, but also of an indirect speech act, acn be appropriately formalized in a performative deep structure. For example, an indirect request such as “Can you close the window?” Would be derived from a deep structure roughly like “I request that you close the window.” Although Sadock does not claim that all indirect illocution can be explained in this way, he does claim that some can, and moreover that it is possible to provide a set of criteria of deciding whether the underlying performative represents the indirect illocutionary force or not.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >In all significant respects, the present account is completely at odds with the extended performative hypothesis.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. The hypothesis implies that indirect force can be adequately represented by a performative verb – an approach which totally fails to deal with the subtlety of indirectness in human communication. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. It treats the distinction between direct and indirect force as simply an all-or-nothing matter.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. No attempt is made to give a functional motivation for the relation between sense and force: for the extended performative hypothesis, it is just an arbitrary fact of grammar that a request can be rendered by means of a Can you? question, but non (say) by means of a Shall I? question.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. The relation between the direct and indirect force of an utterance as an information question and as a request for action is seen as a grammatical ambiguity, rather than as a matter of two coexisting meanings, one being conveyed by virtue of the other. So Leech argues that the extended performative hypothesis fails to account for fairly obvious and commonplace observations about how linguistic communication works. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >III. CONCLUSION </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Based on to Austin and Searly regarded a taxonomy as a system of categories and subcategories, the classification of illocutionary acts has been an important pastime of those wishing to make a thorough survey of ‘the things one can do with words’. And, it tended to reflect the assumption that the existence of an illocutionary performative verb justifies the existence of an illocutionary category. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Contrasly, Leech interested to the meaning and classification of speech act verbs. Even the classification theory of other reserachers is the same subject, but there is a significant shift of viewpoint: its meaning not as a key to the nature of illocutionary act, but as the key to how people talk about illocutionary act.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >REFERENCES</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Leech, Geoffrey, 1983. Principle of Pragmatics. New York: Longman inc.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Schiffrin, Deborah, 1994. Approaches to Discourse. USA: Blackwell Publishers.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Chaer,dkk, 2004, Sosiolinguistik: Perkenalan Awal. Jakarta: PT Rineka Cipta. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Thomas, Jenny, 1948. Meaning and Interaction: an introduction to pragmatics. New York: Longman</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-11766848266621091782011-12-20T17:42:00.000-08:002011-12-20T17:47:00.786-08:00KENISCAYAAN PENERAPAN TIK UNTUK E-LEARNING DAN E-ADMINISTRASI (Antara Harapan dan Kenyataan)<div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Oleh, Lalu Nurul Yaqin</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>1.PENDAHULUAN </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Hakekat hidup senantiasa mengalami perubahan dalam tiap hitungan menit, apa yang hari ini dianggap sebagai sebuah penemuan baru bisa saja besok ketika membelakkan mata akan ada yang lebih baru lagi, dan itu tersaji di didalam kamar artinya perkembagan dan kemajuan terus akan menari dan menabuh gendrang seiring planet bumi yang kita tempati ini masih ada dan perubahan tidak akan pernah berhenti walau alam jagat ini hancur karena perubahan itulah yang abadi.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Mengingkari perubahan sebagai sebuah keniscayaan tentu sebuah ketertingalan apalagi bersifat konservatif terhadap perkembangan dunia yang bagai tanpa batas, karena setiap perubahan itu akan mengarah pada kemajuan dengan memanfaatkannya sebagai sebuah kekuatan yang bisa membantu kerja manusia. Seperti kemajuan Teknology informasi, mau tidak mau kita harus masuk kedalamnya jika tidak ingin jalan ditempat. Keberadaan dan pemanfaatan technology di zaman globalisasi menjadi sebuah keharusan sebab globalisasi mengandung arti terjadinya keterbukaan, kesejagatan, dimana batas-batas negara tidak lagi menjadi penting (Dantes, 2008).</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Dalam menjawab arus globalisasi penerapan technology harus dilaksanakan dalam berbagai bidang termasuk bidang pembelajaran dan administrasi pendidikan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi, (TIK) atau Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) adalah payung besar terminologi yang mencakup seluruh peralatan teknis untuk memproses dan menyampaikan informasi.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Teknology mencakup dua aspek yaitu teknologi informasi dan teknologi komunikasi Teknologi informasi meliputi segala hal yang berkaitan dengan proses, penggunaan sebagai alat bantu, manipulasi, dan pengelolaan informasi. Sedangkan teknologi komunikasi adalah segala sesuatu yang berkaitan dengan penggunaan alat bantu untuk memproses dan mentransfer data dari perangkat yang satu ke lainnya. Oleh karena itu, teknologi informasi dan teknologi komunikasi adalah dua buah konsep yang tidak terpisahkan. Jadi Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi mengandung pengertian luas yaitu segala kegiatan yang terkait dengan pemrosesan, manipulasi, pengelolaan, pemindahan informasi antar media. Istilah TIK muncul setelah adanya perpaduan antara teknologi komputer (baik perangkat keras maupun perangkat lunak) dengan teknologi komunikasi pada pertengahan abad ke-20. Perpaduan kedua teknologi tersebut berkembang pesat melampaui bidang teknologi lainnya. Hingga awal abad ke-21 TIK masih terus mengalami berbagai perubahan dan belum terlihat titik jenuhnya.</b></span></div><span class="fullpost"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Melalui TIK, sarana kerjasama antara pribadi atau kelompok yang satu dengan pribadi atau kelompok yang lainnya sudah tidak lagi mengenal batas jarak dan waktu, negara, ras, kelas ekonomi, ideologi atau faktor lainnya yang dapat menghambat bertukar pikiran antar sesama kita. Perkembangan TIK memicu suatu cara baru dalam kehidupan, dari kehidupan dimulai sampai dengan berakhir, kehidupan seperti ini dikenal dengan e-life, artinya kehidupan ini sudah dipengaruhi oleh berbagai kebutuhan secara elektronik. Alangkah wajar bila sekarang ini sedang semarak dengan berbagai huruf yang dimulai dengan awalan e seperti e-commerce, e-government, e-education, e-learning, e-library, e-journal, e-medicine, e-laboratory, e-biodiversitiy, dan lainnya yang berbasis TIK.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Hal ini bisa dimengerti karena masyarakat sekarang sedang menuju ke era masyarakat informasi (information age) atau masyarakat ilmu pengetahuan (knowledge society). Oleh karena itu, tidaklah mengherankan kalau perguruan tinggi yang menawarkan jurusan informatika atau teknologi informasi berkembang dengan pesat. Dengan pertumbuhan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi yang pesat, internet telah menjadi suatu medium belajar dan mengajar yang perlu diperhitungkan kemanfaatannya. Internet mempunyai potensi yang besar dalam pembelajaran, baik sebagai sumber belajar, media, maupun pendukung pengelolaan proses belajar-mengajar.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Sehingga bisa tercapai tujuan pendidikan seperti yang katakan oleh Dewey, bersifat temporer, yang berarti apabila suatu tujuan telah dicapai, maka hasil tujuan tersebut, menjadi alat untuk mencapai tujuan berikutnya. For it assumed that the aimed of education is to enable individual to continue their education, or that the subject and reward learningis continued capacity for growing (Dewey dalam Djohar, 2007)</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>2. FOKUS PEMBAHASAN</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Focus masalah yang dibahas dalam makalah ini adalah bagaimana penerapan TIK bisa dimanfaatkan sebagai media E-Learning dan E-Administrasi dalam pendidikan dan melihat peluang dan tantangan dari penerapan TIK dalam pembelajaran. Pertama yang aka dikaji adalah (1) melihat lebih general penerapan TIK dalam pendidikan di Indonesia. (2) pemanfaatan E-learning dalam pembelajaran (3) dan Penerapan TIK dalam E-Administrasi. (4) Kesimpulan</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>3. PEMBAHASAN</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>1. Penerapan TIK dalam Pendidikan di Indonesia</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Indonesia pernah menggunakan istilah telematika (telematics) untuk arti yang kurang lebih sama dengan TIK yang kita kenal saat ini Encarta Dictionary mendeskripsikan telematicsebagai telecommunication + informatics (telekomuni kasi + informatika) meskipun sebelumnya kata itu bermakna science of data transmission. Pengolahan informasi dan pendistribusiannya melalui jaringan telekomunikasi membuka banyak peluang untuk dimanfaatkan di berbagai bidang kehidupan manusia, termasuk salah satunya bidang pendidikan. Ide untuk menggunakan mesin-belajar, membuat simulasi proses-proses yang rumit, animasi proses-proses yang sulit dideskripsikan sangat menarik minat praktisi pembelajaran. Tambahan lagi, kemungkinan untuk melayani pembelajaran yang tak terkendala waktu dan tempat juga dapat difasilitasi oleh TIK. ditekankan oleh Williams (2009)” the evaluation of technologiesn have expanded oppurtunities for communicating in orther language beyond the traditional education setting to communicaties comprised of participants living all around the world.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Sejalan dengan itu mulailah bermunculan berbagai jargon berawalan e, mulai dari e-book, e-learning, e-laboratory, e-education, e-library, dan sebagainya awalan e bermakna electronics yang secara implisit dimaknai berdasar teknologi elektronika digital. Pemanfaatan TIK dalam pembelajaran di Indonesia telah memiliki sejarah yang cukup panjang. Inisiatif menyelenggarakan siaran radio pendidikan dan televisi pendidikan merupakan upaya melakukan penyebaran informasi ke satuan-satuan pendidikan yang tersebar di seluruh nusantara.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Hal ini adalah wujud dari kesadaran untuk mengoptimalkan pendayagunaan teknologi dalam membantu proses pembelajaran masyarakat. Kelemahan utama siaran radio maupun televisi pendidikan adalah tidak adanya feedback yang seketika. Siaran bersifat searah yaitu dari narasumber atau fasilitator kepada pembelajar. Introduksi komputer dengan kemampuannya mengolah dan menyajikan tayangan multimedia (teks, grafis, gambar, suara, dan gambar bergerak) memberikan peluang baru untuk mengatasi kelemahan yang tidak dimiliki siaran radio dan televisi. </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Bila televisi hanya mampu memberikan informasi searah (terlebih jika materi tayangannya adalah materi hasil rekaman), pembelajaran berbasis teknologi internet memberikan peluang berinteraksi baik secara sinkron (real time) maupun asinkron (delayed). Pembelajaran berbasis Internet memungkinkan terjadinya pembelajaran secara sinkron dengan keunggulan utama bahwa pembelajar maupun fasilitator tidak harus berada di satu tempat yang sama. Pemanfaatan teknologi video conference yang dijalankan dengan menggunakan teknologi Internet memungkinkan pembelajar berada di mana saja sepanjang terhubung ke jaringan komputer. Selain aplikasi unggulan seperti itu, beberapa peluang lain yang lebih sederhana dan lebih murah juga dapat dikembangkan sejalan dengan kemajuan TIK saat ini.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>2. PENERAPAN E-LEARNING ( E-Pembelajaran)</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Beragam definisi dapat ditemukan untuk e-learning. Victoria L. Tinio dalam Mahendra, misalnya, menyatakan bahwa e-learning meliputi pembelajaran pada semua tingkatan, formal maupun nonformal, yang menggunakan jaringan komputer (intranet maupun ekstranet) untuk pengantaran bahan ajar, interaksi, dan/atau fasilitasi.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Untuk pembelajaran yang sebagian prosesnya berlangsung dengan bantuan jaringan internet sering disebut sebagai online learning. Definisi yang lebih luas dikemukakan pada working paper SEAMOLEC, yakni e-learning adalah pembelajaran melalui jasa elektronik. Meski beragam definisi namun pada dasarnya disetujui bahwa e-learning adalah pembelajaran dengan memanfaatkan teknologi elektronik sebagai sarana penyajian dan distribusi informasi. Dalam definisi tersebut tercakup siaran radio maupun televisi pendidikan sebagai salah satu bentuk e-learning. Meskipun radio dan televisi pendidikan adalah salah satu bentuk e-learning, pada umumnya disepakati bahwa e-learning mencapai bentuk puncaknya setelah bersinergi dengan teknologi internet.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Internet-based learning atau web-based learning dalam bentuk paling sederhana adalah website yang dimanfaatkan untuk menyajikan materi-materi pembelajaran. Cara ini memungkinkan pembelajar mengakses sumber belajar yang disediakan oleh narasumber atau fasilitator kapanpun dikehendaki. Bila diperlukan dapat pula disediakan mailing list khusus untuk situs pembelajaran tersebut yang berfungsi sebagai forum diskusi.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Fasilitas e-learning yang lengkap disediakan oleh perangkat lunak khusus yang disebut perangkat lunak pengelola pembelajaran atau LMS (learning management system). LMS mutakhir berjalan berbasis teknologi internet sehingga dapat diakses dari manapun selama tersedia akses ke internet. Fasilitas yang disediakan meliputi pengelolaan siswa atau peserta didik, pengelolaan materi pembelajaran, pengelolaan proses pembelajaran termasuk pengelolaan evaluasi pembelajaran serta pengelolaan komunikasi antara pembelajar dengan fasilitator-fasilitatornya. Fasilitas ini memungkinkan kegiatan belajar dikelola tanpa adanya tatap muka langsung di antara pihak-pihak yang terlibat (administrator, fasilitator, peserta didik atau pembelajar). ‘Kehadiran’ pihak-pihak yang terlibat diwakili oleh e-mail, kanal chatting, atau melalui video conference.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Khusus E-learning atau electronic learning kini semakin dikenal sebagai salah satu cara untuk mengatasi masalah pendidikan, baik di negara-negara maju maupun di negara-negara yang sedang berkembang. Banyak orang menggunakan istilah yang berbeda-beda mengenai e-learning, namun, pada prinsipnya e-learning adalah pembelajaran yang menggunakan jasa elektronika sebagai alat bantunya. Untuk menyederhanakan istilah, maka electronic learning disingkat menjadi e-learning. Kata ini terdiri dari dua bagian, yaitu ‘e’ yang merupakan singkatan dari ‘electronica’ dan ‘learning’ yang berarti ‘pembelajaran’. Jadi e-learning berarti pembelajaran dengan menggunakan jasa bantuan perangkat elektronika.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Dalam pelaksanaannya, e-learning menggunakan jasa audio, video atau perangkat komputer atau kombinasi dari ketiganya. Soekartawi merumuskan e-learning sebagai “a generic term for all technologically supported learning using an array of teaching and learning tools as phone bridging, audio and videotapes, teleconferencing, satellite transmissions, and the more recognized web-based training or computer aided instruction also commonly referred to as online courses (Soekartawi, dalam Mahendra, 2011).</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Dari definisi ini, e-learning adalah pembelajaran yang pelaksanaannya didukung oleh jasa teknologi seperti telepon, audio, videotape, transmisi satelit atau komputer.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Lebih lanjut, Soekartawi mengemukakan tiga hal yang mendorong mengapa e-learning menjadi salah satu pilihan untuk penyelesaian masalah pendidikan, yaitu : </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>a. Pesatnya kemajuan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi yang tidak hanya menjangkau negara-negara maju melainkan juga negara-negara berkembang. </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>b. Tersedianya infrastruktur telekomunikasi yang memungkinkan terbukanya secara meluas peluang masyarakat untuk mengakses internet, dan</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>c. Makin meningkatnya jumlah organisasi dan anggota masyarakat yang berpartisipasi dalam menyediakan jasa layanan internet.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Dari uraian tersebut di atas dapatlah dikemukakan empat karakteristik e-learning, yaitu:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>1. Memanfaatkan jasa teknologi elektronik yang memudahkan guru dan peserta didik, peserta didik dan sesama peserta didik atau guru dan sesama guru dapat berkomunikasi dengan relatif mudah dengan tanpa dibatasi oleh hal-hal yang protokoler </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>2. Memanfaatkan keunggulan komputer (digital media dan jaringan komputer)</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>3. Menggunakan bahan belajar mandiri (self-learning materials) yang disimpan di jaringan komputer sehingga dapat diakses oleh guru dan peserta didik kapan dan di mana diperlukan; dan</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>4. Memanfaatkan jadwal pembelajaran, kurikulum, hasil kemajuan belajar, dan hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan administrasi pendidikan dapat dilihat setiap saat di komputer. Pemanfaatan e-learning tidak terlepas dari jasa internet karena teknik pembelajaran yang tersedia di internet begitu lengkap sehingga akan memberikan pengaruh terhadap tugas guru dalam proses pembelajaran. </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Dahulu proses belajar-mengajar didominasi oleh peran guru (teacher center). Kini, proses belajar-mengajar banyak didominasi oleh peran guru dan buku (era of teacher and book) dan pada masa mendatang proses belajar-mengajar akan didominasi oleh peran guru, buku dan teknologi (era of teacher, book, and technology).</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Namun sayangnya, di negeri kita yang kaya ini, dan terdiri dari berbagai pulau, hal di atas masih seperti mimpi karena struktur dan kultur serta SDM guru yang profesional belum merata dengan baik. Di berbagai kota besar seperti Jakarta misalnya, beberapa sekolah maju dan internasional telah mengaplikasikannya, tetapi buat sekolah-sekolah di daerah, mungkin masih jauh panggang dari api dalam mengaplikasikan TIK.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Meskipun TIK dalam bentuk komputer dan internet telah terbukti banyak menunjang proses pembelajaran anak secara lebih efektif dan produktif, namun di sisi lain masih banyak kelemahan dan kekurangan. Dari sisi kegairahan kadang-kadang anak-anak lebih bergairah dengan internetnya itu sendiri dibandingkan dengan materi yang dipelajari. Terkadang anak-anak lebih senang bermain games ketimbang materi yang diberikan oleh guru. Karena games sangat menarik peserta didik untuk rehat sejenak dari segala pembelajaran yang diterimanya di sekolah. Dapat juga terjadi proses pembelajaran yang terlalu bersifat individual sehingga mengurangi pembelajaran yang bersifat sosial. Dari aspek informasi yang diperoleh, tidak terjamin adanya ketepatan informasi dari internet sehingga sangat berbahaya kalau anak kurang memiliki sikap kritis terhadap informasi yang diperoleh.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Bagi anak-anak sekolah dasar penggunaan internet yang kurang proporsional dapat mengabaikan peningkatan kemampuan yang bersifat manual seperti menulis tangan, menggambar, berhitung, dan sebagainya. Dalam hubungan ini guru perlu memiliki kemampuan dalam mengelola kegiatan pembelajaran secara proporsional dan demikian pula perlunya kerjasama yang baik dengan orang tua untuk membimbing anak-anak belajar di rumah masing-masing.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Dengan memperhatikan pengalaman beberapa negara sebagaimana dikemukakan di atas, jelas sekali TIK mempunyai pengaruh yang cukup berarti terhadap proses dan hasil pembelajaran baik di kelas maupun di luar kelas. TIK telah memungkinkan terjadinya individuasi, akselerasi, pengayaan, perluasan, efektivitas dan produktivitas pembelajaran yang pada gilirannya akan meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan sebagai infrastruktur pengembangan SDM secara keseluruhan. Melalui penggunaan TIK setiap siswa akan terangsang untuk belajar maju berkelanjutan sesuai dengan potensi dan kecakapan yang dimilikinya. Pembelajaran dengan menggunakan TIK menuntut kreativitas dan kemandirian diri sehingga memungkinkan mengembangkan semua potensi yang dimilikinya.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Dalam menghadapi tantangan kehidupan modern di abad cyber ini kreativitas dan kemandirian sangat diperlukan untuk mampu beradaptasi dengan berbagai tuntutan Kreativitas sangat diperlukan dalam hidup ini dengan beberapa alasan antara lain:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>1. Kreativitas memberikan peluang bagi individu untuk mengaktualisasikan dirinya</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>2. Kreativitas memungkinkan orang dapat menemukan berbagai alternatif dalam pemecahan masalah</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>3. Kreativitas dapat memberikan kepuasan hidup, dan </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>4. Kreativitas memungkinkan manusia meningkatkan kualitas hidupnya. Dari segi kognitifnya, kreativitas merupakan kemampuan berfikir yang memiliki kelancaran, keluwesan, keaslian, dan perincian. </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Sedangkan dari segi afektifnya kreativitas ditandai dengan motivasi yang kuat, rasa ingin tahu, tertarik dengan tugas majemuk, berani menghadapi resiko, tidak mudah putus asa, menghargai keindahan, memiliki rasa humor, selalu ingin mencari pengalaman baru, menghargai diri sendiri dan orang lain, dan sebagainya. </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Karya-karya kreatif ditandai dengan orisinalitas, memiliki nilai, dapat ditransformasikan, dan dapat dikondensasikan. Selanjutnya kemandirian sangat diperlukan dalam kehidupan yang penuh tantangan ini sebab kemandirian merupakan kunci utama bagi individu untuk mampu mengarahkan dirinya ke arah tujuan dalam kehidupannya. Kemandirian didukung dengan kualitas pribadi yang ditandai dengan penguasaan kompetensi tertentu, konsistensi terhadap pendiriannya, kreatif dalam berfikir dan bertindak, mampu mengendalikan dirinya, dan memiliki komitmen yang kuat terhadap berbagai hal.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>3 PENERAPAN TIK DALAM E-ADMINISTRASI</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Dalam pendidikan, waktu merupakan unsur penting dalam menjamin mutu pendidikan. Tidak berlebihan jika waktu dikatakan unsur penting. Kenapa? karena dengan memanfaatkan waktu dengan sebaik-baiknya efisiensi kerja lebih mudah tercapai. Salah satu contoh yang selama ini pernah kita alami adalah dari segi non akademis yaitu administrasi. Kadang kala harus mengantre alam dalam pembayaran SPP. Begitu juga pada saat pendaftaran siswa baru. Kadankala jumlah ribuan siswa/mahasiswa baru harus mengantre untuk melakukan registrasi. Jadi terbayang sudah berapa lama harus menyediakan waktu dan mengorbankan pekerjaan lainnya.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Pengertian Administrasi Perkataan administrasi berasal dari bahasa latin yaitu “administrare”. Dalam bahasa Inggris perkataan administrasi itu adalah administration, yang dalam bahasa Indonesia mengandung arti melayani, memenuhi, mengatur, menyelenggarakan, suatu usaha atau suatu organisasi/lembaga dalam mencapai tujuannya secara intensif. Administrasi dapat diartikan sebagai usaha bersama untuk mendayagunakan semua sumber baik personil maupun meteril secara efektif dan efisien untuk mencapai tujuan tertentu.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Pengertian Komputerisasi adalah “Pengembangan dari suatu system yang mulanya tidak menggunakan komputer menjadi sistem yang menggunakan komputer system manual atau penggunaan manusia lebih tidak efisien dan tidak efektif dikarenakan memakan banyak waktu dan biaya untuk mengatasinya digunakan tenaga mesin berupa penggunaan komputer guna penghematan biaya dan dapat menyelesaikan pekerjaan secara tepat waktu” Jadi administrasi komputerisasi adalah usaha untuk mendayagunakan semua sumber daya berupa personil maupun materil untuk penyelengaraan suatu tujuan tertentu dengan bantuan perangkat/mesin yang disebut dengan komputer, guna mempercepat, mempermudah dan penghematan biaya dan waktu.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Ruang Lingkup Administrasi Sekolah Kegiatan administrasi sekolah dilakukan oleh Tata Usaha yang berfungsi sebagai administrator yang fungsinya mencatat secara rapi dan teratur, dapat mengetahui keadaan perlengkapan/barang dalam waktu singkat dan mengaitkan kebutuhan barang yang diperlukan. Bila dilihat dari tujuan administrasi, ruang lingkup dan prinsip-prinsip administrasi yang baik maka kegiatan administrasi yang dilakukan dalam upaya pencapaian tujuan pendidikan di sekolah dapat berjalan lancar bila ditunjang oleh sistem administrasi yang baik, sarana memadai, sumber daya manusia siap pakai dan yang paling penting adalah berkesinambungan.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Tujuan Administrasi Sekolah Tujuan administrasi adalah melaksanakan usaha-usaha tertentu agar dapat terlaksana sesuatu usaha dengan tujuan tersebut.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Administrasi sebagai suatu pengumpulan dan penyelesaian masalah operasional yang dihadapi sehari-hari di sekolah meliputi komponen-komponen sebagai berikut:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>1. Program</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>2. Pengajaran</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>3. Kesiswaan</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>4. Kepegawaian</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>5. Perlengkapan / barang</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>6. Keuangan</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Dalam pelaksanaan administrasi yang dilakukan dalam upaya pencapaian tujuan pendidikan di sekolah mempunyai tiga prinsip yaitu:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>1. Administrasi harus bersifat praktis, dapat dikerjakan dengan mempertimbangkan situasi dan kondisi nyata di sekolah.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>2. Administrasi harus bersifat sebagai sumber informasi bagi pengembangan pengelolaan pendidikan dan peningkatan proses kegiatan belajar mengajar.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>3. Administrasi dilaksanakan melalui suatu sistem dan mekanisme kerja yang menujang pelaksanaan program kegiatan belajar mengajar di sekolah</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Untuk itu TIK memegang peranan yang sangat vital dalam hal adminstrasi. Berikut akan diuraikan contoh-contoh penerapan TIK dalam E-Administrasi sebagai berikut:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>1. Pembayaran SPP mahasiswa melalui Mobile Banking. Dengan layanan ini, mahasiswa/siswa tidak perlu mengantre untuk berjam-jam untuk mebayar SPP. Cukup dengan menstransfer melalui bank yang dipercaya.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>2. Pendaftaran Online. Dengan layanan ini memungkin calon mahasiswa dapat mendaftar universitas tanpa harus datang. Pendaftaran dapat dilakukan kapanpun dan dimanapun.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>3. Absensi finger print. Absensi ini menggunakan scaner yang sudah banyak disediakan oleh fendor. Dengan layanan ini para staf pegawai tidak perlu repot-repot membuat form absen yang selama ini masih bisa dimanipulasi. Dengan menggunakan sidik jari, otomatis yang tidak bisa diwakilkan dan status bolos maupun terlambat sudah dapat di catat.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>4. Heregitrasi online. Dengan layanan ini mahasiswa dapat merencanakan studi pada semester selanjutnya dimanapun tanpa harus mengantre mengambil form secara manual. Selain itu, mahasiswa juga dapat melihat perolehan nilai akhir dengan mengkases situs kampus yang sudah tersedia.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Dari sekian banyak jenis layanan yang merupakan penerapan TIK, contoh diatas merupakan sebagian kecil saja. Tidak semua aspek dapat dilakukan secara online. Beberapa hal dalam pengurusan administrasi harus dilakukan secara online. Contohnya adalah dalam hal penandatangan oleh dosen maupun kegiatan wawancara.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Selain itu, ada beberapa langkah yang diperlukan dalam perencanaan membangun jaringan komputer untuk e-pembelajaran dan e-administrtasi adalah sebagai berikut:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>1. Pendekatan Emerging dicirikan dengan pemanfaatan TIK oleh sekolah pada tahap permulaan. Pada pendekatan ini, sekolah baru memulai membeli atau membiayai infrastruktur TIK, baik berupa perangkat keras maupun perangkat lunak. Kemampuan TIK guru-guru dan staf administrasi sekolah masih berada pada tahap memulai eksplorasi penggunaan TIK untuk tujuan manajemen dan menambahkan TIK pada kurikulum. Pada tahap ini sekolah masih menerapkan sistem pembelajaran konvensional, akan tetapi sudah ada kepedulian tentang bagaimana pentingnya penggunaan TIK tersebut dalam konteks pendidikan.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>2. Pendekatan Applying dicirikan dengan sudah adanya pemahaman tentang kontribusi dan upaya menerapkan TIK dalam konteks manajemen sekolah dan pembelajaran. Para tenaga pendidik dan kependidikan telah menggunakan TIK untuk tugas-tugas yang berkaitan dengan manajemen sekolah dan tugas-tugas berdasarkan kurikulum. Sekolah juga sudah mencoba mengadaptasi kurikulum agar dapat lebih banyak menggunakan TIK dalam berbagai mata pelajaran dengan piranti lunak yang tertentu.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>3. Pendekatan Infusing menuntut adanya upaya untuk mengintegrasikan dan memasukkan TIK ke dalam kurikulum. Pada pendekatan ini, sekolah telah menerapkan teknologi berbasis komputer di laboratorium, kelas, dan bagian administrasi. Guru berada pada tahap mengeksplorasi cara atau metode baru di mana TIK mengubah produktivitas dan pekerjaan profesional mereka.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>4. Pendekatan Transforming dicirikan dengan adanya upaya sekolah untuk merencanakan dan memperbaharui organisasinya dengan cara yang lebih kreatif. TIK menjadi bagian integral dengan kegiatan pribadi dan kegiatan profesional sehari-hari. Fokus kurikulum mengacu pada learner-centered (berpusat pada peserta didik) dan mengintegrasikan mata pelajaran dengan dunia nyata. TIK diajarkan sebagai mata pelajaran tersendiri dengan level profesional dan disesuaikan dengan bidang-bidang pekerjaan. Sekolah sudah menjadi pusat pembelajaran untuk para komunitasnya.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Kendala Administrasi Di Sekolah Pengelolaan administrasi tanpa bantuan suatu teknologi akan sangat tidak efisien dan membuang-buang biaya serta waktu percuma hanya untuk mengerjakan suatu pekerjaan sepele. Dengan adanya teknologi khususnya komputer pekerjaan administrasi akan sangat terbantu dan waktu dan biaya pun akan dapat dipergunakan secara efisien. Namun kendala bagi sekolah yang tidak memiliki sarana penunjang berupa komputer dan sumber daya manusia yang memadai dalam hal penanganan administrasi di sekolah. Karena dengan dua hal tersbut kelancaran administrasi akan berjalan secara efisien.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Ada beberapa faktor kendala penanganan administrasi yang dihadapi sebuah lembaga sekolah dalam hal administrasi komputerisasi:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>1. Tidak adanya saran komputer. Komputer merupakan sarana penting yang tidak bisa diganti dengan sarana yang lain. Karena dengan komputer pekerjaan dapat dikerjakan dengan mudah dan cepat. Bisa dibayangkan bagaimana pengolahan administrasi hanya menggunakan mesin TIK jaman dulu. Berapa jumlah waktu dan biaya akan terbuang hanya untuk mengerjakan pembuatan daftar siswa.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>2. Tidak adanya sumber daya manusia yang memadai. Sumber daya manusia juga tidak kalah penting dalam hal penanganan administrasi di sebuah lembaga pendidikan, karena tanpa ada seorang operator yang siap pakai dan bisa menggunakan komputer maka mustahil pekerjaan administrasi dapat terselesaikan dengan cepat, tepat dan baik.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>3. Tidak sanggupnya sekolah menyediakan computer. Banyak sekolah yang belum sanggup membeli sebuah komputer dengan alasan dana yang tidak ada. Sehingga untuk menyelesaikan administrasinya sebuah sekolah harus mengeluarkan dana lebih untuk membayar jasa pengetikan ke sebuah rental komputer.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>4. KESIMPULAN</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Dari pembahasan diatas dapat di simpulkan sebagai berikut:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>1. Kemajuan teknololgi tidak bisa di hindari mau tidak mau teknologi akan mengantikan pekerjaan manusia jika kita tidak sigap dan cepat menyusuaikan diri maka kita akan ketinggalan jauh sebab setiap hari perubahan itu terjadi.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>2. Keniscayaan penerapan TIK (teknologi informasi dan komunikasi) sebagai E-learning dalam bidang pembelajaran menjadi keharusan yang mendesak agar peserta didik dapat mengakses ilmu pengetahuan dengan luas dimanapun mereka berada. Karena dengan adanya technology informasi dan komunikasi membuat dunia bagai tanpa jarak lagi.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>3. Penerapan E–Administrasi sangat penting dalam mendukung mutu pendidikan karena efiesinsi sehingga semua pekerjaan dapat terselesaikan dengan cepat.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b> </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>DAFTAR PUSTAKA</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Abraham Lee, B. & William Lawrence. 2009. Electronic discourse in language learning and language teaching. John Benjamins publishing Company.Amsterdam/Philadelpia.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Dantes, N. 2008. Pendidikan Teknohumanistic.Makalah.Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha.Singaraja Bali.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Djohar, As’ari. 2007. Pendidikan Teknologi dan Kejuruan. Tim Pengembangan Ilmu Pendidikan FIP-UPI.IMTIMA. Jakarta</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>http://www.seameo.org/vl/library/dlwelcome/publications/report/hom/21hom/proceed2.htm.diaksess, tanggal 13 Desember 2011</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><b>Mahendra, Jaka. 2011. Peran TIK dalam E- Pembelajran dan e-adiministrasi. Diakses di http://moodeveryday.wordpress.com/2011/08/29/peranan-tik-untuk-e-pembelajaran-dan-e-administrasi. tanggal 13 Desember 2011</b></span></div></span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-77074109200832966042011-11-12T02:09:00.000-08:002011-11-12T02:11:55.848-08:00SUMMARY: INTERLANGUAGE AND THE ‘NATURAL’ ROUTE OF DEVELOPMENT<div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >INTRODUCTION</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The goal of this chapter to examine the claims that second language (L 2) learners acquire knowledge of a L2 in a fixed order (in stark contrast to behaviorist accounts of SLA).This emphasized the importance of environmental factors and first language (L1) interference. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >To begin this chapter will briefly consider:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. The background theory and research in L1 acquisition</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. The notion of interlanguage, a discussion of the L2 = L1 hypothesis</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. The caveats regarding the centrality of learner – internal process in accounts of SLA</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >MENTALIST ACCOUNT OF FIRST ALNGUAGE ACQUISITON</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >This sketch will consist of a composite picture drawn from the work of a number of psycholinguistics and linguistics.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Chomsky’s (1959) attack on skinner’s theory of language learning led to a reassertion of mentalist views of FLA. In place of the empiricist approach of behaviorist Chomsky’s stressed the active contribution of the child and minimized the importance of imitation and reinforcement. He claimed that the child’s knowledge of his mother tongue was derived from a universal grammar which specified the essential from that any natural language could take.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Lennerberg (1967) emphasized the biological prerequisites of language. Only homo sapiens was capable of learning language. Lennerberg argued that the child’s brain was specially adapted to the process of language acquisition, nut that this innate propensity was lost as maturation took place. Lennerberg argued that there was an age of resonance during which language acquisition took place as a generic heritage.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >In summary, therefore mentalist views of L1 acquisition posited the following:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Language is a human-specific faculty </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. Language exists as an independent faculty in the human mind i.e. although it is part of the learner total cognitive apparatus; it is separate from the general cognitive mechanisms responsible for intellectual development.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. The primary determinant of L1 acquisition is the child 'acquisition device', which is genetically endowed and provides the child with a set of principles about grammar. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. The acquisition device atrophies with age.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >5. The process of acquisition consists of hypothesis-testing, by which means the grammar of the learner’s mother tongue is related to the principles of the universal grammar.</span></div><span class="fullpost"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The 1960s was also a period of intensive empirical research into L1 acquisition. Empirical research and theoretical developments in syntax longitudinal two major aspects: Many of the children early utterances were unique. Development was continuous and incremental, but could be characterized as a series of stages. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. The length of children utterances gradually increases – Mean Length of Utterance</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. Knowledge of the grammatical system is built up in steps.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >According to mentalist accounts of L1 acquisition, language acquisition is a universal process.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The term 'process' is used with two related meanings.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. The stages of development that characterize the route the child follows (descriptive term)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. How the child constructs internal rules and how he adjusts them from stage to stage. (Explanatory term)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >INTERLANGUAGE</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The term interlanguage was as first used by Selinker (1972) Nemser (1971): approximative systems Corder (1971): idiosyncratic dialects / transitional competence.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Interlanguage refers to the structured system which the learner constructs at any given stage in his development (i.e. interlanguage)second refers to series of interlocking systems(interlanguage continuum)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The assumptions underlying interlanguage theory (Nemser 1971)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. At any given time the approximate system is distinct from the L1 and L2</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. At approximate systems form an evolving series?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. The approximative systems of learners at the same stage of proficiency roughly coincide.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The concept of hypothesis-testing was used to explain how the L2 learner progressed along the interlanguage continuum. Corder (1967)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The notion of L1 interference was not rejected entirely. Selinker (1972) five principal processes operated in interlanguage</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Language transfer </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. over generalization of target language rules </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. Transfer of training </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. Strategies of L2 learning </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >5. Strategies of L2 communication</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Fossilization (Selinker): L2 learners stop learning when their interlanguage contains at least some rules different from those of the target language system. Fossilized structures can be realized as errors or as correct target language forms. Fossilized structures may not be persistent. The causes of fossilization are both internal and external. (Selinker and Lamendella)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The emphasis on hypothesis-testing and internal processes is direct borrowings from L1 acquisition theory. However mentalist theorizing cannot be easily carried over into SLA research.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Question for SLA: How did adults succeed in learning a L2 at all if recourse to the acquisition device responsible for L1 acquisition was not possible?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >According to Slinker, SLA can proceed in two ways.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. It can utilize the same mechanisms as L1 acquisition.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. It can make use of alternative mechanisms.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Slinnker set out to address this issue. He suggested that those adult who successfully achieve native speaker proficiency in the TL do so because they continue to make use of the ‘acquisition device:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Lenneberg : latent language structure</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. Selinker: latent psychological structure</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. Dulay and Burt 1977: cognitive organizer creative construction</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Selinker: three principal features of interlanguage focus:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Language-learner language is permeable</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. Language-learner language is dynamic</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. Language-learner language is systematic</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >“Interlanguage theory was based on behavioral events”.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >ERROR ANALYSIS </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Sridhar (1981) points out that error analysis have a long tradition prior to the early 1970s. The procedure for Error Analysis is spelled out in Corder (1974)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. A corpus of language is selected.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. The errors in the corpus are identified.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Corner (1971)points out the need of distinguish “Lapses”(i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of processing limitations rather than lack of competence) from Errors (i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of lack competence) he also points out that sentences can be “Overtly idiosyncratic” and “Covertly idiosyncratic”.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. The errors are classified.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. The errors are explained.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. The errors are evaluated.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Error Analysis provides two kinds of information about interlanguage.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. The linguistic type of errors produced by L2 learners</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. The psycholinguistic type of errors produced by L2 learners</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The most significant contribution of Error Analysis lies in its success in elevating the status of errors from undesirability to that of a guide to the inner workings of the language learning process.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE INTERLANGUAGE HYPOTHESIS</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Empirical research was required to decide on the nature of the interlanguage continuum. Was the continuum to be conceived as stretching from learner’s mother tongue to the target language? Corner (1978a) refers to this view of the continuum as a restructuring continuum and recreation continuum.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The morpheme studies were carried out to investigate the order of acquisition of a range of grammatical functions in the speech of L2 learners.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >These studies were conducted according to a fixed procedure. Data were elicited from a sample of L2 learners. The produced an accuracy order (acquisition order).The acquisition order for various grammatical functions is more or less same. The only time that a different order occurs is when the elicitation instrument required the subjects to focus specifically on the form rather than the meaning of their utterances. Krashen (1977: 148)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The standard order that was reported was different from the order of morpheme acquisition reported for L1 acquisition. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >LONGITUDINAL STUDIES</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Longitudinal studies have tried to account for the gradual growth of competence in terms of the strategies used by a learner at different development points. The longitudinal studies discussed here are those that focus on the acquisition of particular grammatical subsystems–negatives, interrogatives, and relative clauses. It is from these studies that the strongest evidence for natural route of development comes.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Longitudinal studies of SLA provide data from different points of time and therefore enable a reliable profile of the SLA of individual learners to be constructed. The disadvantage lies in the difficulty of making generalizations based on the profiles of one or two learners.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >A COMPOSITE LONGITUDINAL PICTURE</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Ellis (1984) attempts to summarize the developmental progression which has been observed in longitudinal studies:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Characteristic by a standard word order, irrespective of weather or not this word order of the target language structure.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. Developments of the learner expand his propositions to include all the most of the constituents required. And also begin to vary the word order of utterances in accordance with the word order pattern of the target language.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. Grammatical morphemes begin to use systematically and meaningfully.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. Consists of the acquisition of complex sentence structures such as embedded Wh-clauses and relative clauses modifying the subject of sentences.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >SUMMARY </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Interpreting the Empirical Evidence</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >L2 learners follow a standard sequence but vary in the order in which specific features are acquired.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The L2=L1 hypothesis </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The L2=L1 acquisition hypothesis has not been proven in its strong form, although similar processes appear to operate in both types of acquisition. In SLA both the L1 and also maturational factors play a part.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Casden (1972) summary of the order of development for interrogatives in L1 acquisition is strikingly similar to that in SLA . here the main stages Casden identifies:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. One word utterance used as questions.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. Intonation question appear on a regular basis and there are some Wh-question learn as ready make chunks</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. Intonation question become more complicated , and productive Wh-question without inversion occurs </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. Inversion involving auxiliary e occur in yes/no question, but not in Wh-question.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >5. Inversion occurs in Wh-question</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >6. Embedded Wh-question develop.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Sloben (1973) suggested that the way children process language in L1 acquisition can be explained in term of series of operating principles:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Pay intention to the ends of words.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. The phonological of words can be systematically modified.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. Pay intention to the order of words and morphemes.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. Avoid interruption and rearrangement of linguistic units.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >5. Underlying semantic should be marked overly and clearly </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >6. Avoid exceptions</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >7. The use of grammatical markers should make semantic sense.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >SOME OUTSTANDING ISSUES</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Methodological problems</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The empirical research of the 1970s was three types:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Error analysis </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. Cross sectional studies (e.g. morphemes studies)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. Longitudinal case studies.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The focus of grammar</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The major theories issues concern</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. The starting point of the interlangugae continuum</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. The extend to which an adequate explanation of SLA requires a consideration of factor external to the learner as well as internal factors</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. The problems posed for interlanguage theory and the natural sequence by variability inherent in language learner language.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Origins of interlanguage</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Corder (1981) considers to possibilities of starting points:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. The learner starts from scratch in the same way as an infant acquiring his mother tongue</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. The learner starts from “some basic simple grammar”</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Corder (1981: 150) suggests that language learners regress to an earlier stage in their own linguistic development before starting the process of elaboration. Ellis (1982a) argue that there is no need to posit that the learner remembers early acquisition stages.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Neglect of external factors</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Mentalist accounts of language acquisition originated in the rejection of behaviorist explanations of how language was learnt.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The problem of variability</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >One of the principles of interlanguage theory is that language learner language systematic. Interlanguage theory does not cope easily with learner variability it struggles to explain why or when variability takes place. The natural route of development also ignores another type of variability, that which derives from individual differences.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. What is Chomsky’s argue in Skinner theory?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >He stressed the active contribution of the child and minimized the importance of imitation and reinforcement. He claimed that the child’s knowledge of his mother tongue was derived from a universal grammar which specified the essential from that any natural language could take.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. What is principal views Chomsky’s and Lennerbeg theory about FLA?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Chomsky’s Lennerbeg</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The child’s knowledge of his mother tongue was derived from a universal grammar Emphasized The Biological Prerequisites Of Language</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. According to mentalist account of L1 acquisition, language acquisition is a universal process. What does the process means?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The term 'process' is used with two related meanings.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. The stages of development that characterize the route the child follows (descriptive term)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. How the child constructs internal rules and how he adjusts them from stage to stage. (Explanatory term)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. What is interlanguage?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Interlanguage refers to the structured system which the learner constructs at any given stage in his development (i.e. interlanguage) second refers to series of interlocking systems(interlanguage continuum)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >5. According to Selinker there are five principal process operated in interlanguage, mentions its?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Five principal:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Language transfer </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. over generalization of target language rules </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. Transfer of training </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. Strategies of L2 learning </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >5. Strategies of L2 communication</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >6. What are differences among language learner, language is permeable, dynamic and systematic?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Permeable Dynamic Systematic</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >The rules that constitute the learner’s knowledge at any one stage are not fixed, but are open to amendment The L2 learner’s interlanguage is constantly Despite the variability of interlanguage, it is possible to detect the rule based nature of the learner’s use of the L2.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >7. What is Lapses and errors?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Lapses Errors</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Deviant sentences that are the result of processing limitations rather than lack of competence deviant sentences that are the result of lack competence</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >8. What is longitudinal studies focus?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Longitudinal focus on the acquisition of particular grammatical subsystems negatives, interrogatives, and relative clauses.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >9. What is Ellis summarize developmental progression which has been observed in longitudinal studies:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >1. Characteristic by a standard word order, irrespective of weather or not this word order of the target language structure.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >2. Developments of the learner expand his propositions to include all the most of the constituents required. And also begin to vary the word order of utterances in accordance with the word order pattern of the target language.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >3. Grammatical morphemes begin to use systematically and meaningfully.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >4. Consists of the acquisition of complex sentence structures such as embedded Wh-clauses and relative clauses modifying the subject of sentences.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >10. What are the most important effects of mentalist interpretation of SLA?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" >Reassessment of errors, and serve as evidence of the learners active contribution to acquisition.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" ><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-9786808397113140162011-11-12T02:04:00.000-08:002011-11-12T02:07:49.776-08:00THE ROLE OF THE FIRST LANGUAGEINTRODUTION<br />It is a popular belief that second language acquisition (SLA) is strongly influenced by the learner’s first language (L1).and the role of the L1 in SLA is a negative one. That is the L1 gets in the way or interferes with the learning of the L2, such that feature of the L1 are transferred into the L2.<br />The research literature reveals considerable disagreement about how pervasive the L1 is in SLA. On the one hand the popular belief is given support:<br />Taking a psychological point of view, we can say that there is never peaceful co-existence between two language systems in the learner, but rather constant warfare is not limited to the moment of cognition, but continues during the period of storing newly learnt ideas in memory (Marton 1981: 150)<br />On the other hand, the popular belief is rejected and the role of the L1 if not denied totally, is at least minimized. <br />Our data on L2 acquisition of syntactic structures in a natural environment suggest that interference does not constitute a major strategy in this area …it seems necessary to me to abandon the notion of interference as a natural and inevitable phenomenon in L2 acquisition. (Felix 1980b: 107)<br />In order to understand why there is such disparity regarding the role of the L1, it is necessary to examine the evolution of the notion of interference that Felix talks about behaviorist learning theory its development in terms of the constructive analysis hypothesis and the theoretical and empirical attack on this hypothesis which followed.<br /><span class="fullpost"><br />1. Behaviorist learning theory <br />Two key notions can be indentified in these discussions:<br />HABITS<br />The associations of a particular responses with a particular stimulus constituted a habit, and it was this type of regular behavior that psychologist such as Watson (1924) or Skinner (1957) set out to investigate. They wanted to know how habits were established. <br />Behaviorist psychologists attributed two important characteristic to habit<br />1. Observable <br />2. Automatic <br />The learning of a habit than could occur through:<br />1. Imitation (i.e. the learner copies the stimulus behavior sufficiently often for it to become automatic)<br />2. Reinforcement (i.e. the response of the learner is rewarded or punished depending on whether it is appropriate ot otherwise, until only appropriate responses are given)<br /><br />ERRORS<br />Behaviors theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language. Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result. Transfer will be positive when the first and the second language habits are the same. In this case no errors will occur.<br />In behaviorist accounts of SLA, errors were considered undesirable. They were evidence of non learning, of the failure to overcome proactive inhibition. Some language teaching theorists even suggested that there was a danger of error becoming habit in their own right if they were tolerated.<br />The predict areas of potential error:<br />1. Classroom practice<br />2. Having examined<br />CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS<br /> As Lado (1957), one of the prime movers of contrastive analysis, make clear, the teacher how has made comparison of the foreign language with the native language of the students will know better what real problem are and can provide for teaching them.<br />Contractive analysis had both a psychological aspect and linguistic aspect. The psychological aspect was based on behaviorist learning theory, and the linguistic aspect, in the first place at least, on structuralism linguistic. <br /><br />THE PSYCOLOGICAL ASPECT OF CONSTRACTIVE ANALYSIS<br />The psychological rationable takes the from of the contrastive analysis hypothesis. This exists in a strong and a weak form (Wardhaugh 1970). The strong form claims that all L2 errors can be predicted by identifying the differences between the target language and the learner first language. As lee (1968:180) notes, it stipulates that the prime cause, or even the sole cause, of difficulty and error in foreign language is the interference coming from the learner’s native language. The weak form of the hypothesis claims only to be diagnostic.<br />Marton (1980) argues that whereas interference need not be a major in naturalistic SLA, it will always be present in classroom or foreign language learning. the difference of opinion represented in the two quotation in the introduction to this chapter can be explained in terms of this variable. Whereas Marton is writing about classroom SLA, felix is writing about naturalistic SLA.<br />Tylor (1975) argues that there are quantitative differences in errors produced by elementary and intermediate students <br /><br />THE LINGUISTIC ASPECT OF CONSTRACTIVE ANALYSIS<br />A comparison of two languages can be carried out using any several different models of grammar. Initially the model used was that of structuralist linguist (e.g. bloomfield 1933; Fries 1952)<br />The differences (among languages) are great enough to prevent our setting up any system of classification that would fit all languages. (Bloomfield 1933) Chomsky’s (1967) theory of grammar proposed just such a model an as such offered a sounder theoretical basis for contrastive analysis (see Van Buren 1974 for fuller discussion of this point)<br />Most of contrastive studies carried out have been based on surface structure characteristic, such as those described by the structuralists, the procedure followed was:<br />1. Description (e.a. a formal description of the two languages; is made) <br />2. Selection (e.a. certain items, which may be entire subsystems such as the auxiliary system or areas known through error analysis to present difficulty, are selected comparison)<br />3. Comparison (e.a the identification of areas of difference and similarity)<br />4. Prediction (i.e. identifying which areas are likely to cause errors).<br />In (3), comparison, the simplest procedure was to identify which aspect of the two languages were similar and which were different. Here are some of the possibilities that comparison might reveal.<br />1. No difference between a feature of the first and second language<br />2. Convergent phenomena<br />3. An item in the first languages is absent in the target language<br />4. An item in the first language has a difference distribution from the equivalent item in the target language<br />5. No similarity between first language feature and the target language feature<br />6. Divergent phenomena<br />Such as (1) to (6) above, for classifying the way in two languages differ. It is quite another, however, to relate these linguistic differences to learning difficulty. Differences can be identified linguistically, but difficulty involves psychological considerations, Brown and martin (1965) and Prator (1967) has proposed that linguistic differences can be arranged in a hierarchy difficulty. Prator for example, suggests that (1) to (6) above are ordered from zero to greatest difficulty.<br />There several problems concerning the linguistic aspect of contrastive analysis:<br />1. The descriptive basis of the comparison has already been briefly considered.<br />2. Considered in the next section<br /><br />CRITICISM OF THE CONSTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS<br />Since 1970s were of three major types of criticisms:<br />1. There were the doubts concerning the ability of contrastive analysis to predict error<br />2. There were a number of theoretical regarding the feasibility of comparing languages and the methodology of contrastive analysis.<br />3. There were reservation about whether contrastive analysis had anything relevant to offer to language teaching.<br />The crisis in contrastive analysis was the result:<br />1. Empirical<br />2. Theoretical<br />3. Practical considerations.<br /><br />EMPIRICAL RESEARCH AND THE PREDICTABILITY OF ERRORS<br />Brooks (1960) for instance, gives four casus for learner error:<br />1. The learner does not the structural pattern and sp make a random response<br />2. The correct model has been insufficiently practiced <br />3. Distortion may be induced by the first language.<br />4. The students may follow the general rule which is not applicable in a particular instance.<br />Dulay and Burt (1973, 1974a) they indentified four type of error according to their psycholinguistic origins:<br />1. Interference like error<br />2. First language developmental errors<br />3. Ambiguous errors<br />4. Unique error <br />Dulay and Burt (1973) calculated the frequencies these error types in speech data of Spanish speaking children learning English.<br /><br />THEORITICAL CRITICISME<br />The different issues will be considered under this heading, these are:<br />1. The attack on behaviorist accounts of language learning which was given impetus by Chomsky’s (1959). Review of skinner’s verbal Behavior<br />2. The nature of the relationship between the notion of difficulty as predictive by contractive analysis and error.<br />3. The problem concerning the linguistic basic of contractive analysis in particular translation equivalence and the need to accommodate the variability of learner performance when predicting error.<br />Chomsky’s attack on behaviorism struck at the psychological basis of the theories of language learning. It was argued by Chomsky and others that extrapolating from studies of animal behavior in laboratory condition, as skinner did could so nothing about how human being learn language in natural condition, the terms stimulus and response ere dismissed as vacuous when applied to language learning, because it not possible to tell what constituted the stimulus for a given speaker response.<br /><br />PRACTICAL CRITISMS <br />The final set of criticism concern weather contrastive analysis is of any practical worth in language teachers. Sanders (1981), it was necessary to present learners with items which were similar to their first language and which were not therefore predicted to cause difficulty, as well as which items analysis appears less certain.<br /><br />REAPPRAISAL <br /> The reappraisal took two forms:<br />1. The nature of language transfer was re-examined in order to state more precisely the conditions under interference took place and the type of L1 knowledge that was utilized. <br />2. The contribution made by the L1 recast in a more cognitive framework to make it more acceptable to the mentalist views which dominated discussion of language acquisition following Chomsky’s attack on skinner neo behaviorist theory. The key concept in this new framework was that of “ strategy”<br /><br />LANGUAGE TRANSFER RE-EXAMINED<br /> There were three noteworthy development of the contrastive analysis hypothesis:<br />1. it was recognized that the difficulty predicted by contrastive analysis might be realized as avoidance instead of error<br />2. Empirical evidence was forthcoming to show that interference was more likely to take place where there was similarity between L1 and L2 items and when there was total difference.<br />3. Perhaps most important, it was recognize that error was multi factor phenomenon and that interference, as one of the factors interacted in complex ways with other factors.<br /><br />AVOIDANCE<br />Schachter (1974) Schachter investigated the relative clauses produced by adult L2 learners from different language background. (e.g. Chinese and Japans). Bertkau also found that japans students scored lower of the comprehension relative clauses than Spanis learners. The criticism of contrastive analysis hypothesis advanced by Dulay and Burt on the basis of observed error frequencies was not fool-proof. Although contrastive analysis might fail to predict production error. It might still be successful in predicting comprehension error and avoidance of structures.<br /><br />DEGREE OF SIMILARITY<br />The contrastive analysis hypothesis was founded on transfer theory, which stated that learning difficulty was the result of interference from old habits in the learning of new habit.<br />Lee (1968) reported that he experienced little interference from his mother tongue, English, when learning Chinese, and suggested that this was because the structures of the two languages were so different.<br />Interferences, in fact, appears to be more likely when there is a crucial similarity measure (Wode, 1976)between L1 and L2.he concluded that certain condition have to be met for what is commonly called interference to take place at all.<br />James (1980), notes that the Skaggs and Robinson hypothesis, framed in 1927, states that interference is greatest when there is certain degree of similarity, and cases when the learning task have what has been called “neutral resemblance”.<br />A MULTI FACTOR APPROACH<br />The early research that sought to challenge the role played by the L1 in SLA 9e.g. Dulay and Burt 1973) was conducted on the basis that an error was either the result of interferences or of some other factor such as developmental processing.<br />Hatch (1983a) explores in some depth the extend to which “naturalness” factors and interference can account for what is known about SLA. Hatch concludes that in the case of phonology and morphology both naturalness factor and L1 interference are at work, often in such a way that errors are doubly determined.<br />There are three sets of factors are involved in SLA<br />1. Universal Grammar<br />2. Specific factor about the learner’s L1<br />3. Specific factors about the L2 <br />Gass (1980:180) proposes” the universal factors determine the general outline of learning. Language specific consideration (of either the native or the target language) can come into play where universal factors underdetermine the result.”<br /><br />L1 INTERFERENCE AS ALEARNER STRATEGY<br />SLA as a process s in which the learner is actively engaged involves attributing to learners strategies for both sorting the L2 data into a form in which it can be stored and for making use of knowledge already in store.<br />As Srindhar (1981) points out, the notion of interference and strategy are no incompatible. Corder (1978b) outlines one away in which “interference” can be recast as a learner “strategy” in effect Corder’s proposal reframes the concept of interference as intercession. Whereas interference has been traditionally seen a feature of learning, intercession is to be considered, intercession is to be considered as a strategy of communication.<br /><br />CONTRASTIVE PRAGMATICS<br />Contrastive analysis needs to consider not only linguistic contrasts but also pragmatics contrast such as the similarities and differences in the stylistic uses of items in the L1 and L2 and in form-function relationships. Contrastive pragmatics is a fairly recent development, although arguably it has its origins in Lados (1957) linguistic cross cultures, which sought to provide a frameworks for comparing cultural differences in the ways in which language are used.<br />Sajavarta (1981b) argues that the basic idea of contrasting language is a correct one. Riley (1981) suggested how this might be undertaken. One way is to take a particular function (e.g. suggesting). James (1981) notes that Widdowson (1975a) makes strong claims about the universality of specialized communicative functions such as those associated with scientific and technical discourse. James argues there can be such thing as contrastive pragmatics because there are no differences among languages at the level of use.<br />Contrastive pragmatics is not just about comparing the communicative functions of different languages. It is also about comparing how different languages express the same communicative function. Scharacter and Rutherford (1979), they observed these errors in the English of Chinese and Japanese learners.<br />1. Most of the food which is served in such restaurants have cooked already<br />2. Irrational emotion are bad but rational emotion must use for judging<br />3. Chiang’s food must make in the kitchen of the restaurant but Marty’s food could make in the house. <br />QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:<br />1. How L1 language interference SLA<br />SLA is strongly influence by the learner’s first language. It is come from foreign accents in the second language (L2) speech of learners. For example when Frenchman speaks English, his English sound French. <br />2. Why “habits” and “errors” to be the key notions in behaviorism?<br />Because of Habit have two characteristic: Imitation (i.e. the learner copies the stimulus behavior sufficiently often for it to become automatic) Reinforcement (i.e. the response of the learner is rewarded or punished depending on whether it is appropriate or otherwise, until only appropriate responses are given).<br />While errors were considered undesirable. They were evidence of non learning, of the failure to overcome proactive inhibition. Some language teaching theorists even suggested that there was a danger of error becoming habit in their own right if they were tolerated<br />3. In contrastive analysis had both psychological aspect and a linguistic aspect, what does those means?<br />Psychological aspect was based on behaviorist learning theory and linguistic aspect in the first place at least, on structuralist linguistics. <br /><br /><br />4. What is different between structuralists linguists and contrastive analysis?<br />Structuralist Linguist a comparison of two languages can be carried out using any several different models of grammar. While contrastive analysis is an area of considerable theoretical interest for general linguistic, those studies that are concerned with SLA.<br />5. Which aspects of the two languages were similar and which were different?<br />a. No difference between a feature of the first and second language<br />b. Convergent phenomena<br />c. An item in the first languages is absent in the target language<br />d. An item in the first language has a difference distribution from the equivalent item in the target language<br />e. No similarity between first language feature and the target language feature<br />f. Divergent phenomena<br />6. Why contrastive analysis hypothesis be criticism?<br />a. There were the doubts concerning the ability of contrastive analysis to predict error<br />b. There were a number of theoretical regarding the feasibility of comparing languages and the methodology of contrastive analysis.<br />c. There were reservations about whether contrastive analysis had anything relevant to offer to language teaching.<br />7. How many types of errors according to psycholinguistic?<br />a. Interference like error<br />b. First language developmental errors<br />c. Ambiguous errors<br />d. Unique error <br />8. What is the field discussion of reappraisal?<br />a. The nature of language transfer was re-examined in order to state more precisely the conditions under interference took place and the type of L1 knowledge that was utilized. <br />b. The contribution made by the L1 recast in a more cognitive framework to make it more acceptable to the mentalist views which dominated discussion of language acquisition following Chomsky’s attack on skinner neo behaviorist theory. The key concept in this new framework was that of “ strategy”<br />9. What is contrastive pragmatics?<br />Contrastive pragmatics is a fairly recent development, although arguably it has its origins in Lados (1957) linguistic cross cultures, which sought to provide a frameworks for comparing cultural differences in the ways in which language are used.<br />10. What is interference and intercession meaning according to Corder’s concept?<br />Interference has been traditionally seen a feature of learning, intercession is to be considered, intercession is to be considered as a strategy of communication.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8875537394020181219.post-27842427524972065132011-10-22T01:49:00.000-07:002011-10-22T01:52:02.358-07:00QUESTION AND ANSWER OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITIONQUESTIONS:<br />1.What is second language acquisition?<br />2.What is Language Acquisition?<br />3.What are differences acquisition and learning?<br />4.What are the second language acquisition barriers?<br />5.When is the best age to learn second language?<br />6.What is considered proficient in second language?<br />7.What is the ultimate goal in acquiring a second language and how does this affect at what age it is taught?<br />8.How an adult amnesia acquire second language?<br /><br />Answer:<br />1.SLA is as the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue, inside or outside of a classroom.<br /><span class="fullpost"><br />2.Language acquisition is the study of how a person learns a language. In a baby this would be how they develop their communication and speaking skills. Sometimes it can refer to second language acquisition, which means how a person learns a second language.<br />3.The term acquisition is used to refer to picking up a second language through exposure whereas the term learning is used to refer to the conscious study of a second language.<br />4.Acquisition barriers: <br />1.Syntax structure.<br />2.Phonetics.<br />3.Morphemes.<br />4.Semantic concepts.<br />5.Lenneberg in vansikle proposed that natural language acquisition through exposure can only happen during the critical period (ages 2-puberty).Before age 2 the brain has not developed enough, and after puberty it is has developed too much, with the loss of “plasticity” and the completion of “lateralization” of the language function. While in The Brian Plasticity Hypothesis: Hypothesis: A child brain is plastic in comparison plastic in comparison to that of an adult, and after the age of about 9 after the age of the brain years, the brain progressively becomes “stiff and rigid. ”The child develops a conditioned The child develops a conditioned reflex “turn from one language to the other without confusion, translation or a mother translation or a mother- -tongue tongue accent.Lateralization:As the brain matures, certain functions are assigned to either the left or right hemisphere.Upon the completion of lateralization, it is believed to be difficult for learners to acquire fluency and authentic “native-like” pronunciation in a second language. <br />6. Children are considered fluent when they can communicate at a level appropriate for their age. An adult must communicate with other about much more complicated issues, where deficiencies in vocabulary and syntax show more readily. more readily.” Reading, writing, speaking and listening are all important factors in language acquisition. Adults are expected to be more competent than children because of age and maturity, and “adult” conversations may vary greatly from those of children. ”<br />7.The ultimate goal of acquiring second language<br />According to (Ausubel, 1964 in Vansickle) Adults have a much greater vocabulary and Conscious grammatical generalizations while the age of second language taught; Some research has shown optimal ages around 7-8 years and 10-12 years, and Scovel (1999) in Vansickle suggests that Younger=Better is a myth supported by the media and “junk science.”<br /><br />8.Amnesia is losing their long-term memory but their short-term memory and their ability to speak and understand are entirely unimpaired. So they able to acquire second language as well as normal peoples.<br /><br />REFERENCES:<br />Amnesia Is The Main Moduler. Posted September 29 2011. Accessed. 18 October 2011. Available online at inside-the-brain.com.<br />Ellis. R. (1986). Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford University Press<br />VanSickle, Julia & Ferris, Sarah. (No Year). Second Language Acquisition the Age Factor. Avaolable online at lilt.ilstu.edu/rlbroad/teaching/.../smith.pdf<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></span>SASAKhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12460615503516767511noreply@blogger.com0