LANGUAGE AND GENDER

A. INTRODUCTION

Language and gender is an area of study within sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, and related field that investigates varieties of speech associated with a particular gender, or social norms for such gendered language use. A variety of speech (or sociolect) associated with a particular gender is sometimes called a genderlect.

Wardhaugh (2002) stated that a major topic in sociolinguistics is the connection between structures, vocabularies, and ways of using particular languages and the social roles of men and women who speak the language.

Issues about gender and language have a long history but its status as fields of research developed alongside the second wave of feminism during the 1960s and 1970s (Weatherall, 2002). Based on these issues, this article will explain; the term sex and gender, dominance and difference, gender and speech style, speech practices associated with gender, and cross gender conversation.

B. THE TERM “SEX AND GENDER”

Sex is a biological condition which defined as a set of physical characteristics. However, Gender is a social construct (within the fields of cultural and gender studies, and the social sciences. Kaminer (1998) stated that general usage of the term gender began in the late 1960s and 1970s, increasingly appearing in the professional literature of the social sciences. The term helps in distinguishing those aspects of life that were more easily attributed or understood to be of social rather than biological origin. According to Aristotle, the Greek philosopher Protagoras used the terms masculine, feminine, and neuter to classify nouns, introducing the concept of grammatical gender.

Wardhaugh (2002) further stated that sex is a very large extent biologically determined whereas gender is a social construct involving the whole gamut of genetic, psychological, social, and cultural differences between males and females.

While, Camereon in Wardaugh (2002) also stated that Men and women are members of cultures in which a large amount of discourse about gender is constantly circulating. They do not only learn , and then mechanically reproduce, ways of speaking ‘appropriate’ to their own sex; they learn a much broader set of gendered meanings that attach in rather complex ways to different ways of speaking, and they produce their own behavior in the light of these meaning.

C. DOMINANCE AND DIFFERENCE

Studies of language and gender often make use of two models or paradigms - that of dominance and that of difference. The first is associated with Dale Spender, Pamela Fishman, Don Zimmerman and Candace West, while the second is associated with Deborah Tannen.

1. Dominance theory

This is the theory that in mixed-sex conversations men are more likely to interrupt than women. It uses a fairly old study of a small sample of conversations, recorded by Don Zimmerman and Candace West at the Santa Barbara campus of the University of California in 1975. The subjects of the recording were white, middle class and under 35. Zimmerman and West produce in evidence 31 segments of conversation. They report that in 11 conversations between men and women, men used 46 interruptions, but women only two. As Geoffrey Beattie, of Sheffield University, points out (writing in New Scientist magazine in 1982): "The problem with this is that you might simply have one very voluble man in the study which has a disproportionate effect on the total." From their small (possibly unrepresentative) sample Zimmerman and West conclude that, since men interrupt more often, then they are dominating or attempting to do so.

Fortunately for the language student, there is no need closely to follow the very sophisticated philosophical and ethical arguments that Dale Spender erects on her interpretation of language. But it is reasonable to look closely at the sources of her evidence - such as the research of Zimmerman and West. Geoffrey Beattie claims to have recorded some 10 hours of tutorial discussion and some 557 interruptions (compared with 55 recorded by Zimmerman and West). Beattie found that women and men interrupted with more or less equal frequency (men 34.1, women 33.8) - so men did interrupt more, but by a margin so slight as not to be statistically significant.

2. Deborah Tannen and difference

Professor Tannen has summarized her book You Just Don't Understand in an article in which she represents male and female language use in a series of six contrasts. These are:

• Status vs. support

• Independence vs. intimacy

• Advice vs. understanding

• Information vs. feelings

• Orders vs. proposals

• Conflict vs. compromise

a) Status versus support

Men grow up in a world in which conversation is competitive - they seek to achieve the upper hand or to prevent others from dominating them. For women, however, talking is often a way to gain confirmation and support for their ideas. Men see the world as a place where people try to gain status and keep it. Women see the world as “a network of connections seeking support and consensus”.

b) Independence versus intimacy

Women often think in terms of closeness and support, and struggle to preserve intimacy. Men, concerned with status, tend to focus more on independence. These traits can lead women and men to starkly different views of the same situation. Professor Tannen gives the example of a woman who would check with her husband before inviting a guest to stay - because she likes telling friends that she has to check with him. The man, meanwhile, invites a friend without asking his wife first, because to tell the friend he must check amounts to a loss of status.

c) Advice versus understanding

Deborah Tannen claims that, too many men a complaint is a challenge to find a solution. For example; when a wife tells a husband that she doesn't feel well, her husband will invariably offers to take her to the doctor. Men are likely giving advice rather than giving sympathy to show his understanding. Invariably, the woman is disappointed with his reaction. Like many men, he is focused on what he can do, whereas women want sympathy.

d) Information versus feelings

A young man makes a brief phone call. His mother overhears it as a series of grunts. Later she asks him about it - it emerges that he has arranged to go to a specific place, where he will play football with various people and he has to take the ball. A young woman makes a phone call - it lasts half an hour or more. The mother asks about it - it emerges that she has been talking “you know” “about stuff”. The conversation has been mostly grooming-talk and comment on feelings.

Historically, men's concerns were seen as more important than those of women, but today this situation may be reversed so that the giving of information and brevity of speech are considered of less value than sharing of emotions and elaboration. From the viewpoint of the language student neither is better (or worse) in any absolute sense.

e) Orders versus proposals

Women often suggest that people do things in indirect ways - “let's”, “why don't we?” or “wouldn't it be good, if we...?” Men may use, and prefer to hear, a direct imperative.

f) Conflict versus compromise

“In trying to prevent fights,” writes Professor Tannen “some women refuse to oppose the will of others openly. But sometimes it's far more effective for a woman to assert herself, even at the risk of conflict. ” This situation is easily observed in work-situations where a management decision seems unattractive - men will often resist it vocally, while women may appear to accede, but complain subsequently. Of course, this is a broad generalization - and for every one of Deborah Tannen's oppositions, we will know of men and women who are exceptions to the norm.

Report talk and rapport talk

Deborah Tannen's distinction of information and feelings is also described as report talk (of men) and rapport talk (of women). The differences can be summarized in a table:

Women Men

• Talk too much

• Speak in private contexts

• Build relations

• Overlap

• Speak symmetrically • Get more air time

• Speak in public

• Negotiate status/avoid failure

• Speak one at a time

• Speak asymmetrically

D. SPEECH PRACTICES ASSOCIATED WITH GENDER

1. Minimal responses

One of the ways in which the communicative behavior of men and women differ is in their use of minimal responses, i.e., paralinguistic features such as ‘mhm’ and ‘yeah’, which is behavior associated with collaborative language use. Men, on the other hand, generally use them less frequently and where they do, it is usually to show agreement, as Don Zimmerman and Candace West’s study of turn-taking in conversation indicates.

While the above can be true in some contexts and situations, studies that dichotomize the communicative behavior of men and women may run the risk of over-generalization. For example, "minimal responses appear "throughout streams of talk", such as "mm" or "yeah", not only function to display active listening and interest and are not always signs of "support work", as Fishman (1978) claims. They can - as more detailed analysis of minimal responses show -- signal understanding, demonstrate agreement, indicate skepticism or a critical attitude, demand clarification or show surprise". In other words, both male and female participants in a conversation can employ these minimal responses for interactive functions, rather than gender-specific functions.

2. Questions

Men and women differ in their use of questions in conversations. For men, a question is usually a genuine request for information whereas with women it can often be a rhetorical means of engaging the other’s conversational contribution or of acquiring attention from others conversationally involved, techniques associated with a collaborative approach to language use. Therefore women use questions more frequently. In writing, however, both genders use rhetorical questions as literary devices. For example, Mark Twain used them in "A War Prayer" to provoke the reader to question his actions and beliefs. Tag questions are frequently used to verify or confirm information; though in women’s language they may also be used to avoid making strong statements.

3. Turn-taking

As the work of Victoria De Francisco shows, female linguistic behavior characteristically encompasses a desire to take turns in conversation with others, which is opposed to men’s tendency towards centering on their own point or remaining silent when presented with such implicit offers of conversation.

4. Changing the topic of conversation

According to Bruce Dorval in his study of same-sex friend interaction, males tend to change subject more frequently than females. This difference may well be at the root of the conception that women chatter and talk too much, and may still trigger the same thinking in some males. In this way lowered estimation of women may arise. Incidentally, this andocentric attitude towards women as chatterers arguably arose from the idea that any female conversation was too much talking according to the patriarchal consideration of silence as a womanly virtue common to many cultures. Goodwin (1990) observes that girls and women link their utterances to previous speakers and develop each other topics, rather than introducing new topics. However, a study of young American couples and their interactions reveal that while women raise twice as many topics as men but it is the men's topics that are usually taken up and subsequently elaborated in the conversation.

5. Self-disclosure

Female tendencies toward self-disclosure, i.e., sharing their problems and experiences with others, often to offer sympathy, contrasts with male tendencies to non-self disclosure and professing advice or offering a solution when confronted with another’s problems.

6. Verbal aggression

Men tend to be more verbally aggressive in conversing, frequently using threats, profanities, yelling and name-calling. Women, on the whole, deem this to disrupt the flow of conversation and not as a means of upholding one’s hierarchical status in the conversation. Where women swear, it is usually to demonstrate to others what normal behavior is for them.

However, the correlation between males and verbal aggression may not apply across different societies and cultures. For examples, Kulick (1992) shows how this stereotype regarding verbal aggression is subverted in his study of two different speech genres in Gapun, Papua New Guinea. Women engage in kros, or "angry talk", which is typically characterized by vituperative and brazen displays of insults and shouting. Conversely, the men partake in men's house talk, which is focused on the down play of conflict in order to maintain - or at least give - the illusion of harmony.

7. Listening and attentiveness

It appears that women attach more weight than men to the importance of listening in conversation, with its connotations of power to the listener as confidant of the speaker. This attachment of import by women to listening is inferred by women’s normally lower rate of interruption — i.e., disrupting the flow of conversation with a topic unrelated to the previous one — and by their largely increased use of minimal responses in relation to men. Men, however, interrupt far more frequently with non-related topics, especially in the mixed sex setting and, far from rendering a female speaker's responses minimal, are apt to greet her conversational spotlights with silence, as the work of Victoria DeFrancisco demonstrates.

8. Dominance versus subjection

This, in turn, suggests a dichotomy between a male desire for conversational dominance – noted by Helena Leet-Pellegrini with reference to male experts speaking more verbosely than their female counterparts – and a female aspiration to group conversational participation. One corollary of this is, according to Jennifer Coates, that males are afforded more attention in the context of the classroom and that this can lead to their gaining more attention in scientific and technical subjects, which in turn can lead to their achieving better success in those areas, ultimately leading to their having more power in a technocratic society.

9. Politeness

Lakoff (1975) identified three forms of politeness: formal, deference, and camaraderie. Women's language is characterized by formal and deference politeness, whereas men’s language is exemplified by camaraderie.

Politeness in speech is described in terms of positive and negative face. Positive face refers to one's desire to be liked and admired, while negative face refers to one's wish to remain autonomous and not to suffer imposition. Both forms, according to Penelope Brown’s study of the Tzeltal language, are used more frequently by women whether in mixed or single-sex pairs, suggesting for Brown a greater sensitivity in women than have men to face the needs of others. In short, women are to all intents and purposes largely more polite than men. However, negative face politeness can be potentially viewed as weak language because of its associated hedges and tag questions, a view propounded by O’Barr and Atkins (1980) in their work on courtroom interaction.

E. GENDER AND SPEECH STYLE

Goddard and Patterson (2000) stated that the first linguist who wrote the differences about male and female language was Otto Japerson. His book entitled Language: its Nature, Development and Origin (1922) described men are seen as the norm and women as departing from that norm in various ways-as being deviant. He further explained that women are seen as having limited vocabularies: ‘the vocabulary of a woman as a rule is much less extensive than that of man’. They are also describes as being rather delicate, easily offended and oblique.

Lakoff in 1975 is one of feminist who gave critique to Japerson view. Her central point was that women were socialized into sounding like ‘ladies’ because woman has power as the man has.

Lakoff's writings have become the basis for much research on the subject of women's language. Her famous work, Language and Woman's Place, introduced to the field of sociolinguistics many ideas about women's language that are now commonplace. She proposed (Language and Woman's Place) that women's speech can be distinguished from that of men in a number of ways, including:

• Hedge: using phrases like “sort of”, “kind of”, “it seems like”, and so on.

• Use (super) polite forms: “Would you mind...”, “I'd appreciate it if...”, “...if you don't mind”.

• Use tag questions: “You're going to dinner, aren't you?”

• Speak in italics: intentional emphasis equal to underlining words - so, very, quite.

• Use empathy adjectives: divine, lovely, adorable, and so on

• Use hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation: English prestige grammar and clear enunciation.

• Use direct quotation: men paraphrase more often.

• Have a special lexicon: women use more words for things like colors, men for sports.

• Use question intonation in declarative statements: women make declarative statements into questions by raising the pitch of their voice at the end of a statement, expressing uncertainty. For example, “What school do you attend? Eton College?”

• Use “wh-” imperatives: (such as, “Why don't you open the door?”)

• Speak less frequently

• Overuse qualifiers: (for example, “I think that...”)

• Apologize more: (for instance, “I'm sorry, but I think that...”)

• Use modal constructions: (such as can, would, should, ought - “Should we turn up the heat?”)

• Avoid coarse language or expletives

• Use indirect commands and requests: (for example, “My, isn't it cold in here?” - really a request to turn the heat on or close a window)

• Use more intensifiers: especially so and very (for instance, “I am so glad you came!”)

• Lack a sense of humor: women do not tell jokes well and often don't understand the punch line of jokes.

F.CROSS GENDER CONVERSATION

When we turn to matters having to do with how men and women use language in a wider sense, the possible explanation of these differences is in social interaction in conversations involving both men and women many researchers agree that men speak more than woman do. One also found that when men talked to men, the content categories of such talk focused on competition and teasing, sports, aggression, and doing things. On the other hand, when woman talked to women, the equivalent categories were the self, feelings, affiliation with others, home and family. Wardaugh (2002: 322) stated that when the two genders interacted, men tended to take the initiative in conversation, but there seem to be a desire to achieve some kind of accommodation so far as topics were concerned: the men spoke less aggressively and competitively and the women reduce their amount of talk about home and family.

Women are expected to use and do use talk to a greater extent than men to serve the function of establishing and maintaining personal relationships (this is not surprising, as the responsibility for the interpersonal relationships primarily rests with women); for example women, to a greater extent than men, are expected to talk, and do talk, simply in order to keep the interaction flowing smoothly and to show goodwill toward others, and they are expected to talk, and do talk, about personal feelings and other socioemotional matters relevant to interpersonal relationships to a greater extent than men. What is particular important in female friendships is the sharing of intimate feelings and confidences through talk, whereas in male friendship the sharing of activities is more important.

Another interesting claim is that in cross-gender conversations men frequently interrupt women but women much less frequently interrupt men (Zimmerman and west, 1975 in Wardaugh, 2002). They further stated that there are three claims of interest that must be seen in analyzing cross-gender conversation. The first claim is that men and women are biologically different and that this difference has serious consequences for gender. Women are somehow predisposed psychologically to be involved with one another and to be supportive and non-competitive. While, men are innately predisposed to independence. The second claim is that social organization is the best perceived as some kind of hierarchical set of power relationship. Language behavior reflects the social dominance of men. And the third claim is men and women are social being who have learned to act in certain ways. Language behavior is largely learned behavior. As society subjects, men and women have different life experiences.

G. CONCLUSION

Gender and sex are different. Sex refers to biological characteristics, and gender is a term to classify nouns such as masculine, feminine, and neuter to introduce the concept of grammatical.

There are two paradigms in studying gender. They are dominance and difference. In this case, dominance is the theory in which men are more likely to interrupt than women. However, according Tannen there are six contrast between male and female language; status vs support, independence vs intimacy, advice vs understanding, information vs feeling, orders vs proposals, and conflict vs compromise.

In communication, women and men are used different languages. The differences can be seen from their speech style, their speech practice and cross gender conversation. Lakof in her book entitled “Language and Woman’s Place” proposed some differences between women and men speech style. The differences includes hedge, use of polite form, tag question, and soon. The points focus in the topic of conversation, self disclosure, verbal aggression, listen and attentiveness, dominance vs subjection and politeness. Men and women are also different in their conversation. It will be different based on the topic they are discussed. Women tend to discuss about home and family. However, men like to discuss about sports, politics, competition and teasing.

REFERENCES

……….Language and Gender. http://semantics.uchicago.edu/kennedy/classes/sum07/myths/myths4-gender.pdf

………Language and Gender. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language and Gender

Goddard, A and Patterson,L. 2000. Language and Gender.London: Routledge Inc

Lakoff,R .1975. Language and Woman Place. New York: Harper and Row

Wardaugh,Ronald.1998. An introduction to Sociolinguistics. USA: Blackwell Publisher.Inc

Weatherall,Ann. 2002. Gender, Language, Discourse; USA: Routledge Inc.

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PRAGMATICS PERFORMATIVE

I.BACKGROUND

Before talking about performative theory, it is important to talk about the classification of sentence which is proposed by structure traditional linguists. According to structure traditional linguists, there are three types of sentences; (1) declarative sentence, (2) interrogative sentence, and (3) imperative sentence. Declarative sentence is a sentence that contains thing which is used to ask listener to pay attention only, not to do anything because the speaker’s goal is just to tell the listener only. Interrogative sentence is a sentence that has content to ask the listener to answer the question orally. Therefore, the speaker not only asks for attention but also ask for question. While imperative sentence is a sentence that has content to ask the listener to give a compliment in the form of action, the speaker asks the listener to do something (Chaer, 2004:50).

One of philosophers, Austin (1962), differentiated declarative sentence, based on its meaning, into performative and constative utterance. The saying of an utterance which is used to do something as such example is called performative utterance. Performative sentence or utterance is derived from “perform”, the usual verb with the noun ‘action’ which indicate that expressing of the utterance is to perform or to do an action beside to say something.

Performative utterance is an utterance that shows an action have been done by the speaker. By expressing the utterance, the action is accomplished at that time too. For example: in utterance ‘I express my thank’, the speaker expresses and accomplishes the action ‘express’ (Kridalaksana, 1984:2001). Performative (in speech act theory): an utterance which performs an act, such as watch out (=warning), I promise not to be late (=a promise). It is said shortly that performative utterance is an utterance to perform the action.

Performative utterance is not evaluated as true or false, but as felicitous or infelicitous. For example:

• I promise that I shall be there.

• I do (take this woman to be my lawful wedded wife)- as uttered in the course of the marriage ceremony.

• I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth. This sentence is uttered when smashing the bottle against the stern.

• I give and bequeath my watch to my brother. (The act of bequeathing).

• I bet you Mike Tyson will win. (The act of betting).

• I apologize for coming late. (The act of apologizing).

• I express my special thanks to your kindness. (The act of thinking).

• I pronounce you husband and wife. (The act of marrying).

• I go now. (The act of going).

The examples given all share several qualities. They all include a particular type of verb- a performative verb- that realizes a particular action when uttered in a specific context: such a contex can include setting (a marriage ceremony, writing a will), physical objects (a ship, legal documents), and institutional identities.

Constative utterance on the other hand is an utterance which is used to describe or to examine event, process, circumstance, etc. and it characteristic is true or false (Kridalaksana, 1984:2001). For example:

1. Mr. John Smith is our lecture.

2. Ali goes to market.

3. I slept at hotel, etc.

However, through this paper, we will see that Leech views contrast with the above classification of performative and we will see the arguments who again and support such views. Some examples of performtive views will be explored in this paper.

II. DISSCUSSION

2.1 THE FORMATIVE AND ILLOCUTIONARY – VERB FALLACIES

Leech proposes his different argument about two theses which he considered as fallacies, and which have influenced thinking about illocutionary force, particularly through the work of Austin and Searle. The illocutionary verb-fallacy according to Leech is the view that the analysis of illocutionary force can be suitably approached through the analysis of the meaning of illocutionary verbs such as advises, command, and promise. This is considered as fallacy by Leech because Leech’s argument is the meaning of illocutionary verb as a part of grammar has to be analyzed categorically. On the other hand, the illocutionary force as a part of pragmatic has to be analyzed in rhetorical and noncategorical terms. When we are analyzing illocutionary verbs, we are dealing with grammar, whereas when we are analyzing the illocutionary force of utterances, we are dealing with pragmatics.

There is one case of illocutionary-verb fallacy which is called performative fallacy. This thesis says that performative, a sentence that contains explicit performative verb is the general principle to explain the force of other utterances. This fallacy arouses an assumption that the meaning of nonperformative sentence can be made explicit by adding some performative prelude. For example:

1. He did not do it. (implicit nonperformatve)

2. I state that he did not do it. ( explicit performative)

3. I maintain that he did not do it. (explicit performative)

What is considered as a fallacy by Leech is sentence one is equivalent to sentence two or three.

Another special case of the performative fallacy is the performative hypothesis of Ross (1970) and others, that the main verb of the underlying semantic structure of every sentence is a performative, ie that deep down in its

deep structure. In the case of those sentences, every sentence like (1) has a form something like (2a).

2.2 THE SPEECH ACT THEORIES OF AUSTIN AND SEARLE

According to Leech, both Austin and Searle flirt with the performative fallacy and end up embracing the illocutionary –verb fallacy. In the following are the history of performative utterances based on Austin and Searle.

The original idea in Austin’s How to do things with words (1962) was that performative utterances are fundamentally different from constative utterances. Whereas constative utterances could be evaluated in traditional terms of truth and falsehood, performative were neither true nor false: instead, they were to be regarded as felicitous and non-felicitous. But examples such as (1) and (2a) above led Austin to the eventual conclusion that all utterances are performative in the sense of constituting a form of action, rather than simply a matter of saying something about the world. For example: (1) I promise that I shall be there, (2) I shall be there.

Finally, Austin concluded that all regular utterances like (3) and (4), whether they have a performative verb or not, there is both a ‘doing’ element and a ‘saying’ element; that conclusion led Austin to differentiate between locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. Finally he classified the illovcutionary acts into verdictive, exercitives, commisives, behabitives, and expositives. This classification is a prime example of what Leech has said as illocutionary- verb fallacy.

The examples of illocutionary acts based on Austin category:

1. Verdictives: used to say decision or assessment.

Example: I state that the defendant is guilty

2. Excercitives is a sentence used to say advice, warning, hope, etc.

Example: I hope you agree with this decision.

3. Commissives is a sentence that is characterized by an appointment

Example: I promise to see you

4. Expositives: used to explain something.

Example: I explain you that he is not guilty

5. Behatitives: a sentence relates with social attitude because someone get good or bad thing. Example: I congratulate on your success

2.3 DECLARATIONS

Declaration (according to Searle) is a special category of speech act because they are performed by someone who is authorized. For example: in case of naming a ship (I name this ship), making a vow (I vow), sentencing a criminal (I sentence you to death), or of bidding at an auction is performed (I vow), etc.

Declaration has special characteristics;

1. Declaration is done by someone who has special authority.

2. Declaration does not involve politeness principle.

2.4 ILLOCUTIONARY PERFORMATIVE: DESCRIPTIVE AND NON-DESCRIPTIVE APPROACHES

We have seen that performative is the most explicit form of illocutionary act. Semantically, the performative itself has special characteristics:

1. The verb of the main clause is an illocutionary verb.

2. This verb is in the simple present tense.

3. The subject of this verb is in the first person.

4. The indirect object of this verb is you.

5. Optionally, this verb is preceded by the adverb hereby.

6. The verb is followed (except in elliptical cases) by a reported-speech clause.

For example:

1. I order you to stand up.

2. I impere you to sit down.

3. I sentence you to death.

4. I maintain that the United Nations is nothing but a talking-shop.

5. I hereby agree with you that the United Nations is just a talking- shop.

Related to illocutionary performative, there are two views are descriptive and non-descriptive views. A descriptive view is carried by Leech, etc., while non-descriptive views are carried by Austin, and Searle.

Arguments of Descriptivist:

1. Performative does not underly every single utterance.

2. Does not contrast between performative and constative utterance because performaive is a special category of speech act.

3. Performative can be denied in a special circumstance.

4. Performative is subset of oratio oblique proposition.

5. Adopt a complementarist position, arguing that the peculiarity of performative is predictable from their sense and the relation between sense and force.

On the other hand, the arguments of non-descriptivist are:

1. Performative underlay every single utterance.

2. Performative is different with constative utterance.

3. Performative can not be denied.

4. The similarities between performative and oratio oblique are fortuitous.

5. Adopts a semanticist position, maintaining that peculiarity of performatives is a matter of their fundamental logical status.

2.5 ILLOCUTIONARY PERFORMATIVES AND ORATIO OBLIQUA

Actually, most of illocutionary performative is the same with oratio obliqua utterances which is necessary called indirect speech and paralleled with performative, example:

- I will telephone you.

This utterance is not complex because as a direct speech and the pronouns of I and you refer respectively to each other. It is differently with the utterance below:

- Bill assured Pat that he would telephone her.

The example above is a inderect speech or oratio obliqua which looks more complex representation. It is also available of primary speech situation and the secondary speech situation. Leech derives it as first utterance and second utterance. “First utterance is in Bill assured Pat that he would telephone her”, and the second utterance is that he would telephone her. The same case can also be found in the sentence below:

- I assure you that I’ll telephone you.

The identity of the primary and secondary speech situation is shown by the U1 and U2 on the sentence above. And the secondary utterance (U2) can be identified on I’ll telephone you.

A. Time of Primary Situation = Time of Secondary Situation

The illocutionary verb is in the present tense seems to mean that it describes a speech act taking place at the present time, in example at the time of the primary speech act. But this is not the whole explanation. A verb in the present tense need not refer to an event happening at the time of speech, as is

clear from an example like I knock off work early on Fridays. This sentence is likely to be uttered at a time other that knocking-off time on a Friday, and it is not likely that the event of uttering the sentence itself. The reason, clearly, is that the sentence has a habitual interpretation.

There is also, a non-habitual or punctual interpretation of the present tense with action verbs. This instantaneous present means that the event described takes place (ex: begins and ends) at the very time of speaking, and for pragmatic reasons, this in turn tends to imply that the event described is brief. Thus, the instantaneous sense of the present tense occurs for example in sport commentaries as in Zidane passes the ball to Henry, but not in the description of longer events. It is done only in that short time. The other example is “he reads a book” must be given a habitual interpretation, whereas He is reading a book, which refers to an actual present activity, also implies that the activity has been in progress before the moment of speech, and will continue in progress after it.

Another kind of situation in which the ‘instantaneous present’ occurs is in the enactment of ceremonies, where the speaker performs a ritual action and describes himself as performing it at the same time:

a) I give this ring (gives ring) - in a marriage ceremony.

b) I sign you with the cross (makes the sign) - in a baptism

c) I declare the meeting open

d) Saya nikahkan kamu (I marry you) - in Islam religion or marriage ceremony.

B. U1 = U2 (Primary Utterance = Secondary Utterance)

This equation can be seen on the example below:

I told her: ‘I’ll telephone you later.’

(direct speech)

I promised her that I’d telephone her later

(Oratio obliqua)

With direct speech, the reporter is committed to giving a verbatim report of what was said; in oratio obliqua, he is not so committed rather, he is committed to giving a description of the utterance’s meaning. Unlike the both example above, could be a correct report of an utterance such as O. K., I’ll phone you in a few minutes, or Don’t worry-I’ll call you around eight. There is no need for the words used in the secondary utterance to appear in the primary utterance. It remains to be shown that U1 = U2 is plausible not only on grammatical, but on pragmatic grounds. So, oratio boliqua is metapropositional rather than strictly metalinguistic.

2.6 THE PRAGMATICS OF ILLOCUTIONARY PERFORMATIVES

In this sub tittle, the perfomative theory is possible to be described and not only plausible interpretation but also accepts the present tense of the performative verb as non-habitual. Then the performative can be direved into several properties as like semantically, pragmatically and performative itself.

Semantically, it is a proposition with a present-tense verb, and is ambiguous between the habitual and instantaneous interpretations. But pragmatically, it is a self-naming utterance which has the force indicated by its main verb. Thus the performative wears its illocutionary heart on its sleeve, whereas for non pragmatically (in example is implicit rather than explicit).

Then, the relation of a performative to its non-performative analogue:

- I admit that Gus is greedy

- Gus is greedy

This relation has been assumed to be one of equivalence, and has thereby been made much of in standard treatments of performatives, the first point to make here is that in the complementarist view, as has been made clear, this is not an equivalence relation. It just a kind of rough equivalence like the example above the first sentence note that the speaker commits himself to the truth of the proposition that ‘Gus is greedy’. Then the performative is semantically a proposition, the derivation of its force from its sense follows

the pattern already proposed for affirmative declarative utterance. in this way, the descriptive view of performatives accords with the observation that

a. Performatives are often partly equivalent to their non-performative analogues, but

b. Performatives express additional meaning which, if conveyed at all, is only conveyed implicitly by their non-performative analogues.

2.7 THE PERFORMATIVE HYPOTHESIS

The illocutionary – verb Fallacy apply a fortiori to the performative hypothesis of Ross (1970) and others is quite different with Leech’s hypothesis. The difference is, depend on Leech, performative must be structurally; indirect speech or oratio obliqua. But for the other linguist almost each of sentence has a performative value. As already expalined, the hypothesis that in its underlying structure, every sentence has a higher clause with the properties of a performative. For example: Be careful. It has a value or meaning behind the utterance, that is I (impere you [that you be careful]). Here impere is meant to be a generalized imperative verb: the actual identity of the performative verb, or even whether it has an overtd surface-structure form at all, is not essential to the hypothesis. The equivalence between the performative and its non-performative analogue is here achieved by the straight forward device of syntactic transformation. Actually Ross only continues the opinion of Austin and derived also by Searle, Sadock, etc.

Thus, although there would be no point in marshalling either old or new arguments against the hypothesis here, there is some value in briefly considering why the performative hypothesis arose, and why the obvious appeal it had for many linguists in the early 1970s did not persist. The origininal arguments in favour of te hypothesis were regarded as ‘syntactic’ arguments, like Ross admitted that the performative hypothesis could be replaced by a ‘pragmatic hypothesis’ which would be as expalanatory as the

performative hypothesis. Once, this step had been taken, the performative hypothesis would have be come unnecessary. But for many linguists of the early 1970s it was difficult to conceive of any linguistic explanation which did not take place within the framework of grammar. Hence Ross’s correct insight – that the pragmatic hypothesis would be preferable to the performative hypothesis – was subsequntly ignored both by himself and by others.

On the other hand, Leech’s performative hypothesis can be simplified that

1. Indirect force can be adequately represented by performative verb-an approach which difference with the subtlety of indirectness

2. It treats the distinction between direct and indirect force

3. No attempt is made to give a functional motivation for the relation between sense and force

2.8 THE EXTENDED PERFORMATIVE HYPOTHESIS

Variant of performatives is the most extreme manifestation to be developed detail by Sadock (1974) and also in Cole and Morgan (1975). They are called the extended performative hypothesis. This is the hypothesis that the illocutionary force not only of a direct speech act, but also of an indirect speech act, acn be appropriately formalized in a performative deep structure. For example, an indirect request such as “Can you close the window?” Would be derived from a deep structure roughly like “I request that you close the window.” Although Sadock does not claim that all indirect illocution can be explained in this way, he does claim that some can, and moreover that it is possible to provide a set of criteria of deciding whether the underlying performative represents the indirect illocutionary force or not.

In all significant respects, the present account is completely at odds with the extended performative hypothesis.

1. The hypothesis implies that indirect force can be adequately represented by a performative verb – an approach which totally fails to deal with the subtlety of indirectness in human communication.

2. It treats the distinction between direct and indirect force as simply an all-or-nothing matter.

3. No attempt is made to give a functional motivation for the relation between sense and force: for the extended performative hypothesis, it is just an arbitrary fact of grammar that a request can be rendered by means of a Can you? question, but non (say) by means of a Shall I? question.

4. The relation between the direct and indirect force of an utterance as an information question and as a request for action is seen as a grammatical ambiguity, rather than as a matter of two coexisting meanings, one being conveyed by virtue of the other. So Leech argues that the extended performative hypothesis fails to account for fairly obvious and commonplace observations about how linguistic communication works.

III. CONCLUSION

Based on to Austin and Searly regarded a taxonomy as a system of categories and subcategories, the classification of illocutionary acts has been an important pastime of those wishing to make a thorough survey of ‘the things one can do with words’. And, it tended to reflect the assumption that the existence of an illocutionary performative verb justifies the existence of an illocutionary category.

Contrasly, Leech interested to the meaning and classification of speech act verbs. Even the classification theory of other reserachers is the same subject, but there is a significant shift of viewpoint: its meaning not as a key to the nature of illocutionary act, but as the key to how people talk about illocutionary act.

REFERENCES

Leech, Geoffrey, 1983. Principle of Pragmatics. New York: Longman inc.

Schiffrin, Deborah, 1994. Approaches to Discourse. USA: Blackwell Publishers.

Chaer,dkk, 2004, Sosiolinguistik: Perkenalan Awal. Jakarta: PT Rineka Cipta.

Thomas, Jenny, 1948. Meaning and Interaction: an introduction to pragmatics. New York: Longman

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KENISCAYAAN PENERAPAN TIK UNTUK E-LEARNING DAN E-ADMINISTRASI (Antara Harapan dan Kenyataan)

Oleh, Lalu Nurul Yaqin

1.PENDAHULUAN

Hakekat hidup senantiasa mengalami perubahan dalam tiap hitungan menit, apa yang hari ini dianggap sebagai sebuah penemuan baru bisa saja besok ketika membelakkan mata akan ada yang lebih baru lagi, dan itu tersaji di didalam kamar artinya perkembagan dan kemajuan terus akan menari dan menabuh gendrang seiring planet bumi yang kita tempati ini masih ada dan perubahan tidak akan pernah berhenti walau alam jagat ini hancur karena perubahan itulah yang abadi.

Mengingkari perubahan sebagai sebuah keniscayaan tentu sebuah ketertingalan apalagi bersifat konservatif terhadap perkembangan dunia yang bagai tanpa batas, karena setiap perubahan itu akan mengarah pada kemajuan dengan memanfaatkannya sebagai sebuah kekuatan yang bisa membantu kerja manusia. Seperti kemajuan Teknology informasi, mau tidak mau kita harus masuk kedalamnya jika tidak ingin jalan ditempat. Keberadaan dan pemanfaatan technology di zaman globalisasi menjadi sebuah keharusan sebab globalisasi mengandung arti terjadinya keterbukaan, kesejagatan, dimana batas-batas negara tidak lagi menjadi penting (Dantes, 2008).

Dalam menjawab arus globalisasi penerapan technology harus dilaksanakan dalam berbagai bidang termasuk bidang pembelajaran dan administrasi pendidikan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi, (TIK) atau Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) adalah payung besar terminologi yang mencakup seluruh peralatan teknis untuk memproses dan menyampaikan informasi.

Teknology mencakup dua aspek yaitu teknologi informasi dan teknologi komunikasi Teknologi informasi meliputi segala hal yang berkaitan dengan proses, penggunaan sebagai alat bantu, manipulasi, dan pengelolaan informasi. Sedangkan teknologi komunikasi adalah segala sesuatu yang berkaitan dengan penggunaan alat bantu untuk memproses dan mentransfer data dari perangkat yang satu ke lainnya. Oleh karena itu, teknologi informasi dan teknologi komunikasi adalah dua buah konsep yang tidak terpisahkan. Jadi Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi mengandung pengertian luas yaitu segala kegiatan yang terkait dengan pemrosesan, manipulasi, pengelolaan, pemindahan informasi antar media. Istilah TIK muncul setelah adanya perpaduan antara teknologi komputer (baik perangkat keras maupun perangkat lunak) dengan teknologi komunikasi pada pertengahan abad ke-20. Perpaduan kedua teknologi tersebut berkembang pesat melampaui bidang teknologi lainnya. Hingga awal abad ke-21 TIK masih terus mengalami berbagai perubahan dan belum terlihat titik jenuhnya.

Melalui TIK, sarana kerjasama antara pribadi atau kelompok yang satu dengan pribadi atau kelompok yang lainnya sudah tidak lagi mengenal batas jarak dan waktu, negara, ras, kelas ekonomi, ideologi atau faktor lainnya yang dapat menghambat bertukar pikiran antar sesama kita. Perkembangan TIK memicu suatu cara baru dalam kehidupan, dari kehidupan dimulai sampai dengan berakhir, kehidupan seperti ini dikenal dengan e-life, artinya kehidupan ini sudah dipengaruhi oleh berbagai kebutuhan secara elektronik. Alangkah wajar bila sekarang ini sedang semarak dengan berbagai huruf yang dimulai dengan awalan e seperti e-commerce, e-government, e-education, e-learning, e-library, e-journal, e-medicine, e-laboratory, e-biodiversitiy, dan lainnya yang berbasis TIK.

Hal ini bisa dimengerti karena masyarakat sekarang sedang menuju ke era masyarakat informasi (information age) atau masyarakat ilmu pengetahuan (knowledge society). Oleh karena itu, tidaklah mengherankan kalau perguruan tinggi yang menawarkan jurusan informatika atau teknologi informasi berkembang dengan pesat. Dengan pertumbuhan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi yang pesat, internet telah menjadi suatu medium belajar dan mengajar yang perlu diperhitungkan kemanfaatannya. Internet mempunyai potensi yang besar dalam pembelajaran, baik sebagai sumber belajar, media, maupun pendukung pengelolaan proses belajar-mengajar.

Sehingga bisa tercapai tujuan pendidikan seperti yang katakan oleh Dewey, bersifat temporer, yang berarti apabila suatu tujuan telah dicapai, maka hasil tujuan tersebut, menjadi alat untuk mencapai tujuan berikutnya. For it assumed that the aimed of education is to enable individual to continue their education, or that the subject and reward learningis continued capacity for growing (Dewey dalam Djohar, 2007)

2. FOKUS PEMBAHASAN

Focus masalah yang dibahas dalam makalah ini adalah bagaimana penerapan TIK bisa dimanfaatkan sebagai media E-Learning dan E-Administrasi dalam pendidikan dan melihat peluang dan tantangan dari penerapan TIK dalam pembelajaran. Pertama yang aka dikaji adalah (1) melihat lebih general penerapan TIK dalam pendidikan di Indonesia. (2) pemanfaatan E-learning dalam pembelajaran (3) dan Penerapan TIK dalam E-Administrasi. (4) Kesimpulan

3. PEMBAHASAN

1. Penerapan TIK dalam Pendidikan di Indonesia

Indonesia pernah menggunakan istilah telematika (telematics) untuk arti yang kurang lebih sama dengan TIK yang kita kenal saat ini Encarta Dictionary mendeskripsikan telematicsebagai telecommunication + informatics (telekomuni kasi + informatika) meskipun sebelumnya kata itu bermakna science of data transmission. Pengolahan informasi dan pendistribusiannya melalui jaringan telekomunikasi membuka banyak peluang untuk dimanfaatkan di berbagai bidang kehidupan manusia, termasuk salah satunya bidang pendidikan. Ide untuk menggunakan mesin-belajar, membuat simulasi proses-proses yang rumit, animasi proses-proses yang sulit dideskripsikan sangat menarik minat praktisi pembelajaran. Tambahan lagi, kemungkinan untuk melayani pembelajaran yang tak terkendala waktu dan tempat juga dapat difasilitasi oleh TIK. ditekankan oleh Williams (2009)” the evaluation of technologiesn have expanded oppurtunities for communicating in orther language beyond the traditional education setting to communicaties comprised of participants living all around the world.

Sejalan dengan itu mulailah bermunculan berbagai jargon berawalan e, mulai dari e-book, e-learning, e-laboratory, e-education, e-library, dan sebagainya awalan e bermakna electronics yang secara implisit dimaknai berdasar teknologi elektronika digital. Pemanfaatan TIK dalam pembelajaran di Indonesia telah memiliki sejarah yang cukup panjang. Inisiatif menyelenggarakan siaran radio pendidikan dan televisi pendidikan merupakan upaya melakukan penyebaran informasi ke satuan-satuan pendidikan yang tersebar di seluruh nusantara.

Hal ini adalah wujud dari kesadaran untuk mengoptimalkan pendayagunaan teknologi dalam membantu proses pembelajaran masyarakat. Kelemahan utama siaran radio maupun televisi pendidikan adalah tidak adanya feedback yang seketika. Siaran bersifat searah yaitu dari narasumber atau fasilitator kepada pembelajar. Introduksi komputer dengan kemampuannya mengolah dan menyajikan tayangan multimedia (teks, grafis, gambar, suara, dan gambar bergerak) memberikan peluang baru untuk mengatasi kelemahan yang tidak dimiliki siaran radio dan televisi.

Bila televisi hanya mampu memberikan informasi searah (terlebih jika materi tayangannya adalah materi hasil rekaman), pembelajaran berbasis teknologi internet memberikan peluang berinteraksi baik secara sinkron (real time) maupun asinkron (delayed). Pembelajaran berbasis Internet memungkinkan terjadinya pembelajaran secara sinkron dengan keunggulan utama bahwa pembelajar maupun fasilitator tidak harus berada di satu tempat yang sama. Pemanfaatan teknologi video conference yang dijalankan dengan menggunakan teknologi Internet memungkinkan pembelajar berada di mana saja sepanjang terhubung ke jaringan komputer. Selain aplikasi unggulan seperti itu, beberapa peluang lain yang lebih sederhana dan lebih murah juga dapat dikembangkan sejalan dengan kemajuan TIK saat ini.

2. PENERAPAN E-LEARNING ( E-Pembelajaran)

Beragam definisi dapat ditemukan untuk e-learning. Victoria L. Tinio dalam Mahendra, misalnya, menyatakan bahwa e-learning meliputi pembelajaran pada semua tingkatan, formal maupun nonformal, yang menggunakan jaringan komputer (intranet maupun ekstranet) untuk pengantaran bahan ajar, interaksi, dan/atau fasilitasi.

Untuk pembelajaran yang sebagian prosesnya berlangsung dengan bantuan jaringan internet sering disebut sebagai online learning. Definisi yang lebih luas dikemukakan pada working paper SEAMOLEC, yakni e-learning adalah pembelajaran melalui jasa elektronik. Meski beragam definisi namun pada dasarnya disetujui bahwa e-learning adalah pembelajaran dengan memanfaatkan teknologi elektronik sebagai sarana penyajian dan distribusi informasi. Dalam definisi tersebut tercakup siaran radio maupun televisi pendidikan sebagai salah satu bentuk e-learning. Meskipun radio dan televisi pendidikan adalah salah satu bentuk e-learning, pada umumnya disepakati bahwa e-learning mencapai bentuk puncaknya setelah bersinergi dengan teknologi internet.

Internet-based learning atau web-based learning dalam bentuk paling sederhana adalah website yang dimanfaatkan untuk menyajikan materi-materi pembelajaran. Cara ini memungkinkan pembelajar mengakses sumber belajar yang disediakan oleh narasumber atau fasilitator kapanpun dikehendaki. Bila diperlukan dapat pula disediakan mailing list khusus untuk situs pembelajaran tersebut yang berfungsi sebagai forum diskusi.

Fasilitas e-learning yang lengkap disediakan oleh perangkat lunak khusus yang disebut perangkat lunak pengelola pembelajaran atau LMS (learning management system). LMS mutakhir berjalan berbasis teknologi internet sehingga dapat diakses dari manapun selama tersedia akses ke internet. Fasilitas yang disediakan meliputi pengelolaan siswa atau peserta didik, pengelolaan materi pembelajaran, pengelolaan proses pembelajaran termasuk pengelolaan evaluasi pembelajaran serta pengelolaan komunikasi antara pembelajar dengan fasilitator-fasilitatornya. Fasilitas ini memungkinkan kegiatan belajar dikelola tanpa adanya tatap muka langsung di antara pihak-pihak yang terlibat (administrator, fasilitator, peserta didik atau pembelajar). ‘Kehadiran’ pihak-pihak yang terlibat diwakili oleh e-mail, kanal chatting, atau melalui video conference.

Khusus E-learning atau electronic learning kini semakin dikenal sebagai salah satu cara untuk mengatasi masalah pendidikan, baik di negara-negara maju maupun di negara-negara yang sedang berkembang. Banyak orang menggunakan istilah yang berbeda-beda mengenai e-learning, namun, pada prinsipnya e-learning adalah pembelajaran yang menggunakan jasa elektronika sebagai alat bantunya. Untuk menyederhanakan istilah, maka electronic learning disingkat menjadi e-learning. Kata ini terdiri dari dua bagian, yaitu ‘e’ yang merupakan singkatan dari ‘electronica’ dan ‘learning’ yang berarti ‘pembelajaran’. Jadi e-learning berarti pembelajaran dengan menggunakan jasa bantuan perangkat elektronika.

Dalam pelaksanaannya, e-learning menggunakan jasa audio, video atau perangkat komputer atau kombinasi dari ketiganya. Soekartawi merumuskan e-learning sebagai “a generic term for all technologically supported learning using an array of teaching and learning tools as phone bridging, audio and videotapes, teleconferencing, satellite transmissions, and the more recognized web-based training or computer aided instruction also commonly referred to as online courses (Soekartawi, dalam Mahendra, 2011).

Dari definisi ini, e-learning adalah pembelajaran yang pelaksanaannya didukung oleh jasa teknologi seperti telepon, audio, videotape, transmisi satelit atau komputer.

Lebih lanjut, Soekartawi mengemukakan tiga hal yang mendorong mengapa e-learning menjadi salah satu pilihan untuk penyelesaian masalah pendidikan, yaitu :

a. Pesatnya kemajuan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi yang tidak hanya menjangkau negara-negara maju melainkan juga negara-negara berkembang.

b. Tersedianya infrastruktur telekomunikasi yang memungkinkan terbukanya secara meluas peluang masyarakat untuk mengakses internet, dan

c. Makin meningkatnya jumlah organisasi dan anggota masyarakat yang berpartisipasi dalam menyediakan jasa layanan internet.

Dari uraian tersebut di atas dapatlah dikemukakan empat karakteristik e-learning, yaitu:

1. Memanfaatkan jasa teknologi elektronik yang memudahkan guru dan peserta didik, peserta didik dan sesama peserta didik atau guru dan sesama guru dapat berkomunikasi dengan relatif mudah dengan tanpa dibatasi oleh hal-hal yang protokoler

2. Memanfaatkan keunggulan komputer (digital media dan jaringan komputer)

3. Menggunakan bahan belajar mandiri (self-learning materials) yang disimpan di jaringan komputer sehingga dapat diakses oleh guru dan peserta didik kapan dan di mana diperlukan; dan

4. Memanfaatkan jadwal pembelajaran, kurikulum, hasil kemajuan belajar, dan hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan administrasi pendidikan dapat dilihat setiap saat di komputer. Pemanfaatan e-learning tidak terlepas dari jasa internet karena teknik pembelajaran yang tersedia di internet begitu lengkap sehingga akan memberikan pengaruh terhadap tugas guru dalam proses pembelajaran.

Dahulu proses belajar-mengajar didominasi oleh peran guru (teacher center). Kini, proses belajar-mengajar banyak didominasi oleh peran guru dan buku (era of teacher and book) dan pada masa mendatang proses belajar-mengajar akan didominasi oleh peran guru, buku dan teknologi (era of teacher, book, and technology).

Namun sayangnya, di negeri kita yang kaya ini, dan terdiri dari berbagai pulau, hal di atas masih seperti mimpi karena struktur dan kultur serta SDM guru yang profesional belum merata dengan baik. Di berbagai kota besar seperti Jakarta misalnya, beberapa sekolah maju dan internasional telah mengaplikasikannya, tetapi buat sekolah-sekolah di daerah, mungkin masih jauh panggang dari api dalam mengaplikasikan TIK.

Meskipun TIK dalam bentuk komputer dan internet telah terbukti banyak menunjang proses pembelajaran anak secara lebih efektif dan produktif, namun di sisi lain masih banyak kelemahan dan kekurangan. Dari sisi kegairahan kadang-kadang anak-anak lebih bergairah dengan internetnya itu sendiri dibandingkan dengan materi yang dipelajari. Terkadang anak-anak lebih senang bermain games ketimbang materi yang diberikan oleh guru. Karena games sangat menarik peserta didik untuk rehat sejenak dari segala pembelajaran yang diterimanya di sekolah. Dapat juga terjadi proses pembelajaran yang terlalu bersifat individual sehingga mengurangi pembelajaran yang bersifat sosial. Dari aspek informasi yang diperoleh, tidak terjamin adanya ketepatan informasi dari internet sehingga sangat berbahaya kalau anak kurang memiliki sikap kritis terhadap informasi yang diperoleh.

Bagi anak-anak sekolah dasar penggunaan internet yang kurang proporsional dapat mengabaikan peningkatan kemampuan yang bersifat manual seperti menulis tangan, menggambar, berhitung, dan sebagainya. Dalam hubungan ini guru perlu memiliki kemampuan dalam mengelola kegiatan pembelajaran secara proporsional dan demikian pula perlunya kerjasama yang baik dengan orang tua untuk membimbing anak-anak belajar di rumah masing-masing.

Dengan memperhatikan pengalaman beberapa negara sebagaimana dikemukakan di atas, jelas sekali TIK mempunyai pengaruh yang cukup berarti terhadap proses dan hasil pembelajaran baik di kelas maupun di luar kelas. TIK telah memungkinkan terjadinya individuasi, akselerasi, pengayaan, perluasan, efektivitas dan produktivitas pembelajaran yang pada gilirannya akan meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan sebagai infrastruktur pengembangan SDM secara keseluruhan. Melalui penggunaan TIK setiap siswa akan terangsang untuk belajar maju berkelanjutan sesuai dengan potensi dan kecakapan yang dimilikinya. Pembelajaran dengan menggunakan TIK menuntut kreativitas dan kemandirian diri sehingga memungkinkan mengembangkan semua potensi yang dimilikinya.

Dalam menghadapi tantangan kehidupan modern di abad cyber ini kreativitas dan kemandirian sangat diperlukan untuk mampu beradaptasi dengan berbagai tuntutan Kreativitas sangat diperlukan dalam hidup ini dengan beberapa alasan antara lain:

1. Kreativitas memberikan peluang bagi individu untuk mengaktualisasikan dirinya

2. Kreativitas memungkinkan orang dapat menemukan berbagai alternatif dalam pemecahan masalah

3. Kreativitas dapat memberikan kepuasan hidup, dan

4. Kreativitas memungkinkan manusia meningkatkan kualitas hidupnya. Dari segi kognitifnya, kreativitas merupakan kemampuan berfikir yang memiliki kelancaran, keluwesan, keaslian, dan perincian.

Sedangkan dari segi afektifnya kreativitas ditandai dengan motivasi yang kuat, rasa ingin tahu, tertarik dengan tugas majemuk, berani menghadapi resiko, tidak mudah putus asa, menghargai keindahan, memiliki rasa humor, selalu ingin mencari pengalaman baru, menghargai diri sendiri dan orang lain, dan sebagainya.

Karya-karya kreatif ditandai dengan orisinalitas, memiliki nilai, dapat ditransformasikan, dan dapat dikondensasikan. Selanjutnya kemandirian sangat diperlukan dalam kehidupan yang penuh tantangan ini sebab kemandirian merupakan kunci utama bagi individu untuk mampu mengarahkan dirinya ke arah tujuan dalam kehidupannya. Kemandirian didukung dengan kualitas pribadi yang ditandai dengan penguasaan kompetensi tertentu, konsistensi terhadap pendiriannya, kreatif dalam berfikir dan bertindak, mampu mengendalikan dirinya, dan memiliki komitmen yang kuat terhadap berbagai hal.

3 PENERAPAN TIK DALAM E-ADMINISTRASI

Dalam pendidikan, waktu merupakan unsur penting dalam menjamin mutu pendidikan. Tidak berlebihan jika waktu dikatakan unsur penting. Kenapa? karena dengan memanfaatkan waktu dengan sebaik-baiknya efisiensi kerja lebih mudah tercapai. Salah satu contoh yang selama ini pernah kita alami adalah dari segi non akademis yaitu administrasi. Kadang kala harus mengantre alam dalam pembayaran SPP. Begitu juga pada saat pendaftaran siswa baru. Kadankala jumlah ribuan siswa/mahasiswa baru harus mengantre untuk melakukan registrasi. Jadi terbayang sudah berapa lama harus menyediakan waktu dan mengorbankan pekerjaan lainnya.

Pengertian Administrasi Perkataan administrasi berasal dari bahasa latin yaitu “administrare”. Dalam bahasa Inggris perkataan administrasi itu adalah administration, yang dalam bahasa Indonesia mengandung arti melayani, memenuhi, mengatur, menyelenggarakan, suatu usaha atau suatu organisasi/lembaga dalam mencapai tujuannya secara intensif. Administrasi dapat diartikan sebagai usaha bersama untuk mendayagunakan semua sumber baik personil maupun meteril secara efektif dan efisien untuk mencapai tujuan tertentu.

Pengertian Komputerisasi adalah “Pengembangan dari suatu system yang mulanya tidak menggunakan komputer menjadi sistem yang menggunakan komputer system manual atau penggunaan manusia lebih tidak efisien dan tidak efektif dikarenakan memakan banyak waktu dan biaya untuk mengatasinya digunakan tenaga mesin berupa penggunaan komputer guna penghematan biaya dan dapat menyelesaikan pekerjaan secara tepat waktu” Jadi administrasi komputerisasi adalah usaha untuk mendayagunakan semua sumber daya berupa personil maupun materil untuk penyelengaraan suatu tujuan tertentu dengan bantuan perangkat/mesin yang disebut dengan komputer, guna mempercepat, mempermudah dan penghematan biaya dan waktu.

Ruang Lingkup Administrasi Sekolah Kegiatan administrasi sekolah dilakukan oleh Tata Usaha yang berfungsi sebagai administrator yang fungsinya mencatat secara rapi dan teratur, dapat mengetahui keadaan perlengkapan/barang dalam waktu singkat dan mengaitkan kebutuhan barang yang diperlukan. Bila dilihat dari tujuan administrasi, ruang lingkup dan prinsip-prinsip administrasi yang baik maka kegiatan administrasi yang dilakukan dalam upaya pencapaian tujuan pendidikan di sekolah dapat berjalan lancar bila ditunjang oleh sistem administrasi yang baik, sarana memadai, sumber daya manusia siap pakai dan yang paling penting adalah berkesinambungan.

Tujuan Administrasi Sekolah Tujuan administrasi adalah melaksanakan usaha-usaha tertentu agar dapat terlaksana sesuatu usaha dengan tujuan tersebut.

Administrasi sebagai suatu pengumpulan dan penyelesaian masalah operasional yang dihadapi sehari-hari di sekolah meliputi komponen-komponen sebagai berikut:

1. Program

2. Pengajaran

3. Kesiswaan

4. Kepegawaian

5. Perlengkapan / barang

6. Keuangan

Dalam pelaksanaan administrasi yang dilakukan dalam upaya pencapaian tujuan pendidikan di sekolah mempunyai tiga prinsip yaitu:

1. Administrasi harus bersifat praktis, dapat dikerjakan dengan mempertimbangkan situasi dan kondisi nyata di sekolah.

2. Administrasi harus bersifat sebagai sumber informasi bagi pengembangan pengelolaan pendidikan dan peningkatan proses kegiatan belajar mengajar.

3. Administrasi dilaksanakan melalui suatu sistem dan mekanisme kerja yang menujang pelaksanaan program kegiatan belajar mengajar di sekolah

Untuk itu TIK memegang peranan yang sangat vital dalam hal adminstrasi. Berikut akan diuraikan contoh-contoh penerapan TIK dalam E-Administrasi sebagai berikut:

1. Pembayaran SPP mahasiswa melalui Mobile Banking. Dengan layanan ini, mahasiswa/siswa tidak perlu mengantre untuk berjam-jam untuk mebayar SPP. Cukup dengan menstransfer melalui bank yang dipercaya.

2. Pendaftaran Online. Dengan layanan ini memungkin calon mahasiswa dapat mendaftar universitas tanpa harus datang. Pendaftaran dapat dilakukan kapanpun dan dimanapun.

3. Absensi finger print. Absensi ini menggunakan scaner yang sudah banyak disediakan oleh fendor. Dengan layanan ini para staf pegawai tidak perlu repot-repot membuat form absen yang selama ini masih bisa dimanipulasi. Dengan menggunakan sidik jari, otomatis yang tidak bisa diwakilkan dan status bolos maupun terlambat sudah dapat di catat.

4. Heregitrasi online. Dengan layanan ini mahasiswa dapat merencanakan studi pada semester selanjutnya dimanapun tanpa harus mengantre mengambil form secara manual. Selain itu, mahasiswa juga dapat melihat perolehan nilai akhir dengan mengkases situs kampus yang sudah tersedia.

Dari sekian banyak jenis layanan yang merupakan penerapan TIK, contoh diatas merupakan sebagian kecil saja. Tidak semua aspek dapat dilakukan secara online. Beberapa hal dalam pengurusan administrasi harus dilakukan secara online. Contohnya adalah dalam hal penandatangan oleh dosen maupun kegiatan wawancara.

Selain itu, ada beberapa langkah yang diperlukan dalam perencanaan membangun jaringan komputer untuk e-pembelajaran dan e-administrtasi adalah sebagai berikut:

1. Pendekatan Emerging dicirikan dengan pemanfaatan TIK oleh sekolah pada tahap permulaan. Pada pendekatan ini, sekolah baru memulai membeli atau membiayai infrastruktur TIK, baik berupa perangkat keras maupun perangkat lunak. Kemampuan TIK guru-guru dan staf administrasi sekolah masih berada pada tahap memulai eksplorasi penggunaan TIK untuk tujuan manajemen dan menambahkan TIK pada kurikulum. Pada tahap ini sekolah masih menerapkan sistem pembelajaran konvensional, akan tetapi sudah ada kepedulian tentang bagaimana pentingnya penggunaan TIK tersebut dalam konteks pendidikan.

2. Pendekatan Applying dicirikan dengan sudah adanya pemahaman tentang kontribusi dan upaya menerapkan TIK dalam konteks manajemen sekolah dan pembelajaran. Para tenaga pendidik dan kependidikan telah menggunakan TIK untuk tugas-tugas yang berkaitan dengan manajemen sekolah dan tugas-tugas berdasarkan kurikulum. Sekolah juga sudah mencoba mengadaptasi kurikulum agar dapat lebih banyak menggunakan TIK dalam berbagai mata pelajaran dengan piranti lunak yang tertentu.

3. Pendekatan Infusing menuntut adanya upaya untuk mengintegrasikan dan memasukkan TIK ke dalam kurikulum. Pada pendekatan ini, sekolah telah menerapkan teknologi berbasis komputer di laboratorium, kelas, dan bagian administrasi. Guru berada pada tahap mengeksplorasi cara atau metode baru di mana TIK mengubah produktivitas dan pekerjaan profesional mereka.

4. Pendekatan Transforming dicirikan dengan adanya upaya sekolah untuk merencanakan dan memperbaharui organisasinya dengan cara yang lebih kreatif. TIK menjadi bagian integral dengan kegiatan pribadi dan kegiatan profesional sehari-hari. Fokus kurikulum mengacu pada learner-centered (berpusat pada peserta didik) dan mengintegrasikan mata pelajaran dengan dunia nyata. TIK diajarkan sebagai mata pelajaran tersendiri dengan level profesional dan disesuaikan dengan bidang-bidang pekerjaan. Sekolah sudah menjadi pusat pembelajaran untuk para komunitasnya.

Kendala Administrasi Di Sekolah Pengelolaan administrasi tanpa bantuan suatu teknologi akan sangat tidak efisien dan membuang-buang biaya serta waktu percuma hanya untuk mengerjakan suatu pekerjaan sepele. Dengan adanya teknologi khususnya komputer pekerjaan administrasi akan sangat terbantu dan waktu dan biaya pun akan dapat dipergunakan secara efisien. Namun kendala bagi sekolah yang tidak memiliki sarana penunjang berupa komputer dan sumber daya manusia yang memadai dalam hal penanganan administrasi di sekolah. Karena dengan dua hal tersbut kelancaran administrasi akan berjalan secara efisien.

Ada beberapa faktor kendala penanganan administrasi yang dihadapi sebuah lembaga sekolah dalam hal administrasi komputerisasi:

1. Tidak adanya saran komputer. Komputer merupakan sarana penting yang tidak bisa diganti dengan sarana yang lain. Karena dengan komputer pekerjaan dapat dikerjakan dengan mudah dan cepat. Bisa dibayangkan bagaimana pengolahan administrasi hanya menggunakan mesin TIK jaman dulu. Berapa jumlah waktu dan biaya akan terbuang hanya untuk mengerjakan pembuatan daftar siswa.

2. Tidak adanya sumber daya manusia yang memadai. Sumber daya manusia juga tidak kalah penting dalam hal penanganan administrasi di sebuah lembaga pendidikan, karena tanpa ada seorang operator yang siap pakai dan bisa menggunakan komputer maka mustahil pekerjaan administrasi dapat terselesaikan dengan cepat, tepat dan baik.

3. Tidak sanggupnya sekolah menyediakan computer. Banyak sekolah yang belum sanggup membeli sebuah komputer dengan alasan dana yang tidak ada. Sehingga untuk menyelesaikan administrasinya sebuah sekolah harus mengeluarkan dana lebih untuk membayar jasa pengetikan ke sebuah rental komputer.

4. KESIMPULAN

Dari pembahasan diatas dapat di simpulkan sebagai berikut:

1. Kemajuan teknololgi tidak bisa di hindari mau tidak mau teknologi akan mengantikan pekerjaan manusia jika kita tidak sigap dan cepat menyusuaikan diri maka kita akan ketinggalan jauh sebab setiap hari perubahan itu terjadi.

2. Keniscayaan penerapan TIK (teknologi informasi dan komunikasi) sebagai E-learning dalam bidang pembelajaran menjadi keharusan yang mendesak agar peserta didik dapat mengakses ilmu pengetahuan dengan luas dimanapun mereka berada. Karena dengan adanya technology informasi dan komunikasi membuat dunia bagai tanpa jarak lagi.

3. Penerapan E–Administrasi sangat penting dalam mendukung mutu pendidikan karena efiesinsi sehingga semua pekerjaan dapat terselesaikan dengan cepat.

 

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Abraham Lee, B. & William Lawrence. 2009. Electronic discourse in language learning and language teaching. John Benjamins publishing Company.Amsterdam/Philadelpia.

Dantes, N. 2008. Pendidikan Teknohumanistic.Makalah.Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha.Singaraja Bali.

Djohar, As’ari. 2007. Pendidikan Teknologi dan Kejuruan. Tim Pengembangan Ilmu Pendidikan FIP-UPI.IMTIMA. Jakarta

http://www.seameo.org/vl/library/dlwelcome/publications/report/hom/21hom/proceed2.htm.diaksess, tanggal 13 Desember 2011

Mahendra, Jaka. 2011. Peran TIK dalam E- Pembelajran dan e-adiministrasi. Diakses di http://moodeveryday.wordpress.com/2011/08/29/peranan-tik-untuk-e-pembelajaran-dan-e-administrasi. tanggal 13 Desember 2011

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