PRAGMATICS PERFORMATIVE

I.BACKGROUND

Before talking about performative theory, it is important to talk about the classification of sentence which is proposed by structure traditional linguists. According to structure traditional linguists, there are three types of sentences; (1) declarative sentence, (2) interrogative sentence, and (3) imperative sentence. Declarative sentence is a sentence that contains thing which is used to ask listener to pay attention only, not to do anything because the speaker’s goal is just to tell the listener only. Interrogative sentence is a sentence that has content to ask the listener to answer the question orally. Therefore, the speaker not only asks for attention but also ask for question. While imperative sentence is a sentence that has content to ask the listener to give a compliment in the form of action, the speaker asks the listener to do something (Chaer, 2004:50).

One of philosophers, Austin (1962), differentiated declarative sentence, based on its meaning, into performative and constative utterance. The saying of an utterance which is used to do something as such example is called performative utterance. Performative sentence or utterance is derived from “perform”, the usual verb with the noun ‘action’ which indicate that expressing of the utterance is to perform or to do an action beside to say something.

Performative utterance is an utterance that shows an action have been done by the speaker. By expressing the utterance, the action is accomplished at that time too. For example: in utterance ‘I express my thank’, the speaker expresses and accomplishes the action ‘express’ (Kridalaksana, 1984:2001). Performative (in speech act theory): an utterance which performs an act, such as watch out (=warning), I promise not to be late (=a promise). It is said shortly that performative utterance is an utterance to perform the action.

Performative utterance is not evaluated as true or false, but as felicitous or infelicitous. For example:

• I promise that I shall be there.

• I do (take this woman to be my lawful wedded wife)- as uttered in the course of the marriage ceremony.

• I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth. This sentence is uttered when smashing the bottle against the stern.

• I give and bequeath my watch to my brother. (The act of bequeathing).

• I bet you Mike Tyson will win. (The act of betting).

• I apologize for coming late. (The act of apologizing).

• I express my special thanks to your kindness. (The act of thinking).

• I pronounce you husband and wife. (The act of marrying).

• I go now. (The act of going).

The examples given all share several qualities. They all include a particular type of verb- a performative verb- that realizes a particular action when uttered in a specific context: such a contex can include setting (a marriage ceremony, writing a will), physical objects (a ship, legal documents), and institutional identities.

Constative utterance on the other hand is an utterance which is used to describe or to examine event, process, circumstance, etc. and it characteristic is true or false (Kridalaksana, 1984:2001). For example:

1. Mr. John Smith is our lecture.

2. Ali goes to market.

3. I slept at hotel, etc.

However, through this paper, we will see that Leech views contrast with the above classification of performative and we will see the arguments who again and support such views. Some examples of performtive views will be explored in this paper.

II. DISSCUSSION

2.1 THE FORMATIVE AND ILLOCUTIONARY – VERB FALLACIES

Leech proposes his different argument about two theses which he considered as fallacies, and which have influenced thinking about illocutionary force, particularly through the work of Austin and Searle. The illocutionary verb-fallacy according to Leech is the view that the analysis of illocutionary force can be suitably approached through the analysis of the meaning of illocutionary verbs such as advises, command, and promise. This is considered as fallacy by Leech because Leech’s argument is the meaning of illocutionary verb as a part of grammar has to be analyzed categorically. On the other hand, the illocutionary force as a part of pragmatic has to be analyzed in rhetorical and noncategorical terms. When we are analyzing illocutionary verbs, we are dealing with grammar, whereas when we are analyzing the illocutionary force of utterances, we are dealing with pragmatics.

There is one case of illocutionary-verb fallacy which is called performative fallacy. This thesis says that performative, a sentence that contains explicit performative verb is the general principle to explain the force of other utterances. This fallacy arouses an assumption that the meaning of nonperformative sentence can be made explicit by adding some performative prelude. For example:

1. He did not do it. (implicit nonperformatve)

2. I state that he did not do it. ( explicit performative)

3. I maintain that he did not do it. (explicit performative)

What is considered as a fallacy by Leech is sentence one is equivalent to sentence two or three.

Another special case of the performative fallacy is the performative hypothesis of Ross (1970) and others, that the main verb of the underlying semantic structure of every sentence is a performative, ie that deep down in its

deep structure. In the case of those sentences, every sentence like (1) has a form something like (2a).

2.2 THE SPEECH ACT THEORIES OF AUSTIN AND SEARLE

According to Leech, both Austin and Searle flirt with the performative fallacy and end up embracing the illocutionary –verb fallacy. In the following are the history of performative utterances based on Austin and Searle.

The original idea in Austin’s How to do things with words (1962) was that performative utterances are fundamentally different from constative utterances. Whereas constative utterances could be evaluated in traditional terms of truth and falsehood, performative were neither true nor false: instead, they were to be regarded as felicitous and non-felicitous. But examples such as (1) and (2a) above led Austin to the eventual conclusion that all utterances are performative in the sense of constituting a form of action, rather than simply a matter of saying something about the world. For example: (1) I promise that I shall be there, (2) I shall be there.

Finally, Austin concluded that all regular utterances like (3) and (4), whether they have a performative verb or not, there is both a ‘doing’ element and a ‘saying’ element; that conclusion led Austin to differentiate between locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. Finally he classified the illovcutionary acts into verdictive, exercitives, commisives, behabitives, and expositives. This classification is a prime example of what Leech has said as illocutionary- verb fallacy.

The examples of illocutionary acts based on Austin category:

1. Verdictives: used to say decision or assessment.

Example: I state that the defendant is guilty

2. Excercitives is a sentence used to say advice, warning, hope, etc.

Example: I hope you agree with this decision.

3. Commissives is a sentence that is characterized by an appointment

Example: I promise to see you

4. Expositives: used to explain something.

Example: I explain you that he is not guilty

5. Behatitives: a sentence relates with social attitude because someone get good or bad thing. Example: I congratulate on your success

2.3 DECLARATIONS

Declaration (according to Searle) is a special category of speech act because they are performed by someone who is authorized. For example: in case of naming a ship (I name this ship), making a vow (I vow), sentencing a criminal (I sentence you to death), or of bidding at an auction is performed (I vow), etc.

Declaration has special characteristics;

1. Declaration is done by someone who has special authority.

2. Declaration does not involve politeness principle.

2.4 ILLOCUTIONARY PERFORMATIVE: DESCRIPTIVE AND NON-DESCRIPTIVE APPROACHES

We have seen that performative is the most explicit form of illocutionary act. Semantically, the performative itself has special characteristics:

1. The verb of the main clause is an illocutionary verb.

2. This verb is in the simple present tense.

3. The subject of this verb is in the first person.

4. The indirect object of this verb is you.

5. Optionally, this verb is preceded by the adverb hereby.

6. The verb is followed (except in elliptical cases) by a reported-speech clause.

For example:

1. I order you to stand up.

2. I impere you to sit down.

3. I sentence you to death.

4. I maintain that the United Nations is nothing but a talking-shop.

5. I hereby agree with you that the United Nations is just a talking- shop.

Related to illocutionary performative, there are two views are descriptive and non-descriptive views. A descriptive view is carried by Leech, etc., while non-descriptive views are carried by Austin, and Searle.

Arguments of Descriptivist:

1. Performative does not underly every single utterance.

2. Does not contrast between performative and constative utterance because performaive is a special category of speech act.

3. Performative can be denied in a special circumstance.

4. Performative is subset of oratio oblique proposition.

5. Adopt a complementarist position, arguing that the peculiarity of performative is predictable from their sense and the relation between sense and force.

On the other hand, the arguments of non-descriptivist are:

1. Performative underlay every single utterance.

2. Performative is different with constative utterance.

3. Performative can not be denied.

4. The similarities between performative and oratio oblique are fortuitous.

5. Adopts a semanticist position, maintaining that peculiarity of performatives is a matter of their fundamental logical status.

2.5 ILLOCUTIONARY PERFORMATIVES AND ORATIO OBLIQUA

Actually, most of illocutionary performative is the same with oratio obliqua utterances which is necessary called indirect speech and paralleled with performative, example:

- I will telephone you.

This utterance is not complex because as a direct speech and the pronouns of I and you refer respectively to each other. It is differently with the utterance below:

- Bill assured Pat that he would telephone her.

The example above is a inderect speech or oratio obliqua which looks more complex representation. It is also available of primary speech situation and the secondary speech situation. Leech derives it as first utterance and second utterance. “First utterance is in Bill assured Pat that he would telephone her”, and the second utterance is that he would telephone her. The same case can also be found in the sentence below:

- I assure you that I’ll telephone you.

The identity of the primary and secondary speech situation is shown by the U1 and U2 on the sentence above. And the secondary utterance (U2) can be identified on I’ll telephone you.

A. Time of Primary Situation = Time of Secondary Situation

The illocutionary verb is in the present tense seems to mean that it describes a speech act taking place at the present time, in example at the time of the primary speech act. But this is not the whole explanation. A verb in the present tense need not refer to an event happening at the time of speech, as is

clear from an example like I knock off work early on Fridays. This sentence is likely to be uttered at a time other that knocking-off time on a Friday, and it is not likely that the event of uttering the sentence itself. The reason, clearly, is that the sentence has a habitual interpretation.

There is also, a non-habitual or punctual interpretation of the present tense with action verbs. This instantaneous present means that the event described takes place (ex: begins and ends) at the very time of speaking, and for pragmatic reasons, this in turn tends to imply that the event described is brief. Thus, the instantaneous sense of the present tense occurs for example in sport commentaries as in Zidane passes the ball to Henry, but not in the description of longer events. It is done only in that short time. The other example is “he reads a book” must be given a habitual interpretation, whereas He is reading a book, which refers to an actual present activity, also implies that the activity has been in progress before the moment of speech, and will continue in progress after it.

Another kind of situation in which the ‘instantaneous present’ occurs is in the enactment of ceremonies, where the speaker performs a ritual action and describes himself as performing it at the same time:

a) I give this ring (gives ring) - in a marriage ceremony.

b) I sign you with the cross (makes the sign) - in a baptism

c) I declare the meeting open

d) Saya nikahkan kamu (I marry you) - in Islam religion or marriage ceremony.

B. U1 = U2 (Primary Utterance = Secondary Utterance)

This equation can be seen on the example below:

I told her: ‘I’ll telephone you later.’

(direct speech)

I promised her that I’d telephone her later

(Oratio obliqua)

With direct speech, the reporter is committed to giving a verbatim report of what was said; in oratio obliqua, he is not so committed rather, he is committed to giving a description of the utterance’s meaning. Unlike the both example above, could be a correct report of an utterance such as O. K., I’ll phone you in a few minutes, or Don’t worry-I’ll call you around eight. There is no need for the words used in the secondary utterance to appear in the primary utterance. It remains to be shown that U1 = U2 is plausible not only on grammatical, but on pragmatic grounds. So, oratio boliqua is metapropositional rather than strictly metalinguistic.

2.6 THE PRAGMATICS OF ILLOCUTIONARY PERFORMATIVES

In this sub tittle, the perfomative theory is possible to be described and not only plausible interpretation but also accepts the present tense of the performative verb as non-habitual. Then the performative can be direved into several properties as like semantically, pragmatically and performative itself.

Semantically, it is a proposition with a present-tense verb, and is ambiguous between the habitual and instantaneous interpretations. But pragmatically, it is a self-naming utterance which has the force indicated by its main verb. Thus the performative wears its illocutionary heart on its sleeve, whereas for non pragmatically (in example is implicit rather than explicit).

Then, the relation of a performative to its non-performative analogue:

- I admit that Gus is greedy

- Gus is greedy

This relation has been assumed to be one of equivalence, and has thereby been made much of in standard treatments of performatives, the first point to make here is that in the complementarist view, as has been made clear, this is not an equivalence relation. It just a kind of rough equivalence like the example above the first sentence note that the speaker commits himself to the truth of the proposition that ‘Gus is greedy’. Then the performative is semantically a proposition, the derivation of its force from its sense follows

the pattern already proposed for affirmative declarative utterance. in this way, the descriptive view of performatives accords with the observation that

a. Performatives are often partly equivalent to their non-performative analogues, but

b. Performatives express additional meaning which, if conveyed at all, is only conveyed implicitly by their non-performative analogues.

2.7 THE PERFORMATIVE HYPOTHESIS

The illocutionary – verb Fallacy apply a fortiori to the performative hypothesis of Ross (1970) and others is quite different with Leech’s hypothesis. The difference is, depend on Leech, performative must be structurally; indirect speech or oratio obliqua. But for the other linguist almost each of sentence has a performative value. As already expalined, the hypothesis that in its underlying structure, every sentence has a higher clause with the properties of a performative. For example: Be careful. It has a value or meaning behind the utterance, that is I (impere you [that you be careful]). Here impere is meant to be a generalized imperative verb: the actual identity of the performative verb, or even whether it has an overtd surface-structure form at all, is not essential to the hypothesis. The equivalence between the performative and its non-performative analogue is here achieved by the straight forward device of syntactic transformation. Actually Ross only continues the opinion of Austin and derived also by Searle, Sadock, etc.

Thus, although there would be no point in marshalling either old or new arguments against the hypothesis here, there is some value in briefly considering why the performative hypothesis arose, and why the obvious appeal it had for many linguists in the early 1970s did not persist. The origininal arguments in favour of te hypothesis were regarded as ‘syntactic’ arguments, like Ross admitted that the performative hypothesis could be replaced by a ‘pragmatic hypothesis’ which would be as expalanatory as the

performative hypothesis. Once, this step had been taken, the performative hypothesis would have be come unnecessary. But for many linguists of the early 1970s it was difficult to conceive of any linguistic explanation which did not take place within the framework of grammar. Hence Ross’s correct insight – that the pragmatic hypothesis would be preferable to the performative hypothesis – was subsequntly ignored both by himself and by others.

On the other hand, Leech’s performative hypothesis can be simplified that

1. Indirect force can be adequately represented by performative verb-an approach which difference with the subtlety of indirectness

2. It treats the distinction between direct and indirect force

3. No attempt is made to give a functional motivation for the relation between sense and force

2.8 THE EXTENDED PERFORMATIVE HYPOTHESIS

Variant of performatives is the most extreme manifestation to be developed detail by Sadock (1974) and also in Cole and Morgan (1975). They are called the extended performative hypothesis. This is the hypothesis that the illocutionary force not only of a direct speech act, but also of an indirect speech act, acn be appropriately formalized in a performative deep structure. For example, an indirect request such as “Can you close the window?” Would be derived from a deep structure roughly like “I request that you close the window.” Although Sadock does not claim that all indirect illocution can be explained in this way, he does claim that some can, and moreover that it is possible to provide a set of criteria of deciding whether the underlying performative represents the indirect illocutionary force or not.

In all significant respects, the present account is completely at odds with the extended performative hypothesis.

1. The hypothesis implies that indirect force can be adequately represented by a performative verb – an approach which totally fails to deal with the subtlety of indirectness in human communication.

2. It treats the distinction between direct and indirect force as simply an all-or-nothing matter.

3. No attempt is made to give a functional motivation for the relation between sense and force: for the extended performative hypothesis, it is just an arbitrary fact of grammar that a request can be rendered by means of a Can you? question, but non (say) by means of a Shall I? question.

4. The relation between the direct and indirect force of an utterance as an information question and as a request for action is seen as a grammatical ambiguity, rather than as a matter of two coexisting meanings, one being conveyed by virtue of the other. So Leech argues that the extended performative hypothesis fails to account for fairly obvious and commonplace observations about how linguistic communication works.

III. CONCLUSION

Based on to Austin and Searly regarded a taxonomy as a system of categories and subcategories, the classification of illocutionary acts has been an important pastime of those wishing to make a thorough survey of ‘the things one can do with words’. And, it tended to reflect the assumption that the existence of an illocutionary performative verb justifies the existence of an illocutionary category.

Contrasly, Leech interested to the meaning and classification of speech act verbs. Even the classification theory of other reserachers is the same subject, but there is a significant shift of viewpoint: its meaning not as a key to the nature of illocutionary act, but as the key to how people talk about illocutionary act.

REFERENCES

Leech, Geoffrey, 1983. Principle of Pragmatics. New York: Longman inc.

Schiffrin, Deborah, 1994. Approaches to Discourse. USA: Blackwell Publishers.

Chaer,dkk, 2004, Sosiolinguistik: Perkenalan Awal. Jakarta: PT Rineka Cipta.

Thomas, Jenny, 1948. Meaning and Interaction: an introduction to pragmatics. New York: Longman

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KENISCAYAAN PENERAPAN TIK UNTUK E-LEARNING DAN E-ADMINISTRASI (Antara Harapan dan Kenyataan)

Oleh, Lalu Nurul Yaqin

1.PENDAHULUAN

Hakekat hidup senantiasa mengalami perubahan dalam tiap hitungan menit, apa yang hari ini dianggap sebagai sebuah penemuan baru bisa saja besok ketika membelakkan mata akan ada yang lebih baru lagi, dan itu tersaji di didalam kamar artinya perkembagan dan kemajuan terus akan menari dan menabuh gendrang seiring planet bumi yang kita tempati ini masih ada dan perubahan tidak akan pernah berhenti walau alam jagat ini hancur karena perubahan itulah yang abadi.

Mengingkari perubahan sebagai sebuah keniscayaan tentu sebuah ketertingalan apalagi bersifat konservatif terhadap perkembangan dunia yang bagai tanpa batas, karena setiap perubahan itu akan mengarah pada kemajuan dengan memanfaatkannya sebagai sebuah kekuatan yang bisa membantu kerja manusia. Seperti kemajuan Teknology informasi, mau tidak mau kita harus masuk kedalamnya jika tidak ingin jalan ditempat. Keberadaan dan pemanfaatan technology di zaman globalisasi menjadi sebuah keharusan sebab globalisasi mengandung arti terjadinya keterbukaan, kesejagatan, dimana batas-batas negara tidak lagi menjadi penting (Dantes, 2008).

Dalam menjawab arus globalisasi penerapan technology harus dilaksanakan dalam berbagai bidang termasuk bidang pembelajaran dan administrasi pendidikan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi, (TIK) atau Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) adalah payung besar terminologi yang mencakup seluruh peralatan teknis untuk memproses dan menyampaikan informasi.

Teknology mencakup dua aspek yaitu teknologi informasi dan teknologi komunikasi Teknologi informasi meliputi segala hal yang berkaitan dengan proses, penggunaan sebagai alat bantu, manipulasi, dan pengelolaan informasi. Sedangkan teknologi komunikasi adalah segala sesuatu yang berkaitan dengan penggunaan alat bantu untuk memproses dan mentransfer data dari perangkat yang satu ke lainnya. Oleh karena itu, teknologi informasi dan teknologi komunikasi adalah dua buah konsep yang tidak terpisahkan. Jadi Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi mengandung pengertian luas yaitu segala kegiatan yang terkait dengan pemrosesan, manipulasi, pengelolaan, pemindahan informasi antar media. Istilah TIK muncul setelah adanya perpaduan antara teknologi komputer (baik perangkat keras maupun perangkat lunak) dengan teknologi komunikasi pada pertengahan abad ke-20. Perpaduan kedua teknologi tersebut berkembang pesat melampaui bidang teknologi lainnya. Hingga awal abad ke-21 TIK masih terus mengalami berbagai perubahan dan belum terlihat titik jenuhnya.

Melalui TIK, sarana kerjasama antara pribadi atau kelompok yang satu dengan pribadi atau kelompok yang lainnya sudah tidak lagi mengenal batas jarak dan waktu, negara, ras, kelas ekonomi, ideologi atau faktor lainnya yang dapat menghambat bertukar pikiran antar sesama kita. Perkembangan TIK memicu suatu cara baru dalam kehidupan, dari kehidupan dimulai sampai dengan berakhir, kehidupan seperti ini dikenal dengan e-life, artinya kehidupan ini sudah dipengaruhi oleh berbagai kebutuhan secara elektronik. Alangkah wajar bila sekarang ini sedang semarak dengan berbagai huruf yang dimulai dengan awalan e seperti e-commerce, e-government, e-education, e-learning, e-library, e-journal, e-medicine, e-laboratory, e-biodiversitiy, dan lainnya yang berbasis TIK.

Hal ini bisa dimengerti karena masyarakat sekarang sedang menuju ke era masyarakat informasi (information age) atau masyarakat ilmu pengetahuan (knowledge society). Oleh karena itu, tidaklah mengherankan kalau perguruan tinggi yang menawarkan jurusan informatika atau teknologi informasi berkembang dengan pesat. Dengan pertumbuhan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi yang pesat, internet telah menjadi suatu medium belajar dan mengajar yang perlu diperhitungkan kemanfaatannya. Internet mempunyai potensi yang besar dalam pembelajaran, baik sebagai sumber belajar, media, maupun pendukung pengelolaan proses belajar-mengajar.

Sehingga bisa tercapai tujuan pendidikan seperti yang katakan oleh Dewey, bersifat temporer, yang berarti apabila suatu tujuan telah dicapai, maka hasil tujuan tersebut, menjadi alat untuk mencapai tujuan berikutnya. For it assumed that the aimed of education is to enable individual to continue their education, or that the subject and reward learningis continued capacity for growing (Dewey dalam Djohar, 2007)

2. FOKUS PEMBAHASAN

Focus masalah yang dibahas dalam makalah ini adalah bagaimana penerapan TIK bisa dimanfaatkan sebagai media E-Learning dan E-Administrasi dalam pendidikan dan melihat peluang dan tantangan dari penerapan TIK dalam pembelajaran. Pertama yang aka dikaji adalah (1) melihat lebih general penerapan TIK dalam pendidikan di Indonesia. (2) pemanfaatan E-learning dalam pembelajaran (3) dan Penerapan TIK dalam E-Administrasi. (4) Kesimpulan

3. PEMBAHASAN

1. Penerapan TIK dalam Pendidikan di Indonesia

Indonesia pernah menggunakan istilah telematika (telematics) untuk arti yang kurang lebih sama dengan TIK yang kita kenal saat ini Encarta Dictionary mendeskripsikan telematicsebagai telecommunication + informatics (telekomuni kasi + informatika) meskipun sebelumnya kata itu bermakna science of data transmission. Pengolahan informasi dan pendistribusiannya melalui jaringan telekomunikasi membuka banyak peluang untuk dimanfaatkan di berbagai bidang kehidupan manusia, termasuk salah satunya bidang pendidikan. Ide untuk menggunakan mesin-belajar, membuat simulasi proses-proses yang rumit, animasi proses-proses yang sulit dideskripsikan sangat menarik minat praktisi pembelajaran. Tambahan lagi, kemungkinan untuk melayani pembelajaran yang tak terkendala waktu dan tempat juga dapat difasilitasi oleh TIK. ditekankan oleh Williams (2009)” the evaluation of technologiesn have expanded oppurtunities for communicating in orther language beyond the traditional education setting to communicaties comprised of participants living all around the world.

Sejalan dengan itu mulailah bermunculan berbagai jargon berawalan e, mulai dari e-book, e-learning, e-laboratory, e-education, e-library, dan sebagainya awalan e bermakna electronics yang secara implisit dimaknai berdasar teknologi elektronika digital. Pemanfaatan TIK dalam pembelajaran di Indonesia telah memiliki sejarah yang cukup panjang. Inisiatif menyelenggarakan siaran radio pendidikan dan televisi pendidikan merupakan upaya melakukan penyebaran informasi ke satuan-satuan pendidikan yang tersebar di seluruh nusantara.

Hal ini adalah wujud dari kesadaran untuk mengoptimalkan pendayagunaan teknologi dalam membantu proses pembelajaran masyarakat. Kelemahan utama siaran radio maupun televisi pendidikan adalah tidak adanya feedback yang seketika. Siaran bersifat searah yaitu dari narasumber atau fasilitator kepada pembelajar. Introduksi komputer dengan kemampuannya mengolah dan menyajikan tayangan multimedia (teks, grafis, gambar, suara, dan gambar bergerak) memberikan peluang baru untuk mengatasi kelemahan yang tidak dimiliki siaran radio dan televisi.

Bila televisi hanya mampu memberikan informasi searah (terlebih jika materi tayangannya adalah materi hasil rekaman), pembelajaran berbasis teknologi internet memberikan peluang berinteraksi baik secara sinkron (real time) maupun asinkron (delayed). Pembelajaran berbasis Internet memungkinkan terjadinya pembelajaran secara sinkron dengan keunggulan utama bahwa pembelajar maupun fasilitator tidak harus berada di satu tempat yang sama. Pemanfaatan teknologi video conference yang dijalankan dengan menggunakan teknologi Internet memungkinkan pembelajar berada di mana saja sepanjang terhubung ke jaringan komputer. Selain aplikasi unggulan seperti itu, beberapa peluang lain yang lebih sederhana dan lebih murah juga dapat dikembangkan sejalan dengan kemajuan TIK saat ini.

2. PENERAPAN E-LEARNING ( E-Pembelajaran)

Beragam definisi dapat ditemukan untuk e-learning. Victoria L. Tinio dalam Mahendra, misalnya, menyatakan bahwa e-learning meliputi pembelajaran pada semua tingkatan, formal maupun nonformal, yang menggunakan jaringan komputer (intranet maupun ekstranet) untuk pengantaran bahan ajar, interaksi, dan/atau fasilitasi.

Untuk pembelajaran yang sebagian prosesnya berlangsung dengan bantuan jaringan internet sering disebut sebagai online learning. Definisi yang lebih luas dikemukakan pada working paper SEAMOLEC, yakni e-learning adalah pembelajaran melalui jasa elektronik. Meski beragam definisi namun pada dasarnya disetujui bahwa e-learning adalah pembelajaran dengan memanfaatkan teknologi elektronik sebagai sarana penyajian dan distribusi informasi. Dalam definisi tersebut tercakup siaran radio maupun televisi pendidikan sebagai salah satu bentuk e-learning. Meskipun radio dan televisi pendidikan adalah salah satu bentuk e-learning, pada umumnya disepakati bahwa e-learning mencapai bentuk puncaknya setelah bersinergi dengan teknologi internet.

Internet-based learning atau web-based learning dalam bentuk paling sederhana adalah website yang dimanfaatkan untuk menyajikan materi-materi pembelajaran. Cara ini memungkinkan pembelajar mengakses sumber belajar yang disediakan oleh narasumber atau fasilitator kapanpun dikehendaki. Bila diperlukan dapat pula disediakan mailing list khusus untuk situs pembelajaran tersebut yang berfungsi sebagai forum diskusi.

Fasilitas e-learning yang lengkap disediakan oleh perangkat lunak khusus yang disebut perangkat lunak pengelola pembelajaran atau LMS (learning management system). LMS mutakhir berjalan berbasis teknologi internet sehingga dapat diakses dari manapun selama tersedia akses ke internet. Fasilitas yang disediakan meliputi pengelolaan siswa atau peserta didik, pengelolaan materi pembelajaran, pengelolaan proses pembelajaran termasuk pengelolaan evaluasi pembelajaran serta pengelolaan komunikasi antara pembelajar dengan fasilitator-fasilitatornya. Fasilitas ini memungkinkan kegiatan belajar dikelola tanpa adanya tatap muka langsung di antara pihak-pihak yang terlibat (administrator, fasilitator, peserta didik atau pembelajar). ‘Kehadiran’ pihak-pihak yang terlibat diwakili oleh e-mail, kanal chatting, atau melalui video conference.

Khusus E-learning atau electronic learning kini semakin dikenal sebagai salah satu cara untuk mengatasi masalah pendidikan, baik di negara-negara maju maupun di negara-negara yang sedang berkembang. Banyak orang menggunakan istilah yang berbeda-beda mengenai e-learning, namun, pada prinsipnya e-learning adalah pembelajaran yang menggunakan jasa elektronika sebagai alat bantunya. Untuk menyederhanakan istilah, maka electronic learning disingkat menjadi e-learning. Kata ini terdiri dari dua bagian, yaitu ‘e’ yang merupakan singkatan dari ‘electronica’ dan ‘learning’ yang berarti ‘pembelajaran’. Jadi e-learning berarti pembelajaran dengan menggunakan jasa bantuan perangkat elektronika.

Dalam pelaksanaannya, e-learning menggunakan jasa audio, video atau perangkat komputer atau kombinasi dari ketiganya. Soekartawi merumuskan e-learning sebagai “a generic term for all technologically supported learning using an array of teaching and learning tools as phone bridging, audio and videotapes, teleconferencing, satellite transmissions, and the more recognized web-based training or computer aided instruction also commonly referred to as online courses (Soekartawi, dalam Mahendra, 2011).

Dari definisi ini, e-learning adalah pembelajaran yang pelaksanaannya didukung oleh jasa teknologi seperti telepon, audio, videotape, transmisi satelit atau komputer.

Lebih lanjut, Soekartawi mengemukakan tiga hal yang mendorong mengapa e-learning menjadi salah satu pilihan untuk penyelesaian masalah pendidikan, yaitu :

a. Pesatnya kemajuan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi yang tidak hanya menjangkau negara-negara maju melainkan juga negara-negara berkembang.

b. Tersedianya infrastruktur telekomunikasi yang memungkinkan terbukanya secara meluas peluang masyarakat untuk mengakses internet, dan

c. Makin meningkatnya jumlah organisasi dan anggota masyarakat yang berpartisipasi dalam menyediakan jasa layanan internet.

Dari uraian tersebut di atas dapatlah dikemukakan empat karakteristik e-learning, yaitu:

1. Memanfaatkan jasa teknologi elektronik yang memudahkan guru dan peserta didik, peserta didik dan sesama peserta didik atau guru dan sesama guru dapat berkomunikasi dengan relatif mudah dengan tanpa dibatasi oleh hal-hal yang protokoler

2. Memanfaatkan keunggulan komputer (digital media dan jaringan komputer)

3. Menggunakan bahan belajar mandiri (self-learning materials) yang disimpan di jaringan komputer sehingga dapat diakses oleh guru dan peserta didik kapan dan di mana diperlukan; dan

4. Memanfaatkan jadwal pembelajaran, kurikulum, hasil kemajuan belajar, dan hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan administrasi pendidikan dapat dilihat setiap saat di komputer. Pemanfaatan e-learning tidak terlepas dari jasa internet karena teknik pembelajaran yang tersedia di internet begitu lengkap sehingga akan memberikan pengaruh terhadap tugas guru dalam proses pembelajaran.

Dahulu proses belajar-mengajar didominasi oleh peran guru (teacher center). Kini, proses belajar-mengajar banyak didominasi oleh peran guru dan buku (era of teacher and book) dan pada masa mendatang proses belajar-mengajar akan didominasi oleh peran guru, buku dan teknologi (era of teacher, book, and technology).

Namun sayangnya, di negeri kita yang kaya ini, dan terdiri dari berbagai pulau, hal di atas masih seperti mimpi karena struktur dan kultur serta SDM guru yang profesional belum merata dengan baik. Di berbagai kota besar seperti Jakarta misalnya, beberapa sekolah maju dan internasional telah mengaplikasikannya, tetapi buat sekolah-sekolah di daerah, mungkin masih jauh panggang dari api dalam mengaplikasikan TIK.

Meskipun TIK dalam bentuk komputer dan internet telah terbukti banyak menunjang proses pembelajaran anak secara lebih efektif dan produktif, namun di sisi lain masih banyak kelemahan dan kekurangan. Dari sisi kegairahan kadang-kadang anak-anak lebih bergairah dengan internetnya itu sendiri dibandingkan dengan materi yang dipelajari. Terkadang anak-anak lebih senang bermain games ketimbang materi yang diberikan oleh guru. Karena games sangat menarik peserta didik untuk rehat sejenak dari segala pembelajaran yang diterimanya di sekolah. Dapat juga terjadi proses pembelajaran yang terlalu bersifat individual sehingga mengurangi pembelajaran yang bersifat sosial. Dari aspek informasi yang diperoleh, tidak terjamin adanya ketepatan informasi dari internet sehingga sangat berbahaya kalau anak kurang memiliki sikap kritis terhadap informasi yang diperoleh.

Bagi anak-anak sekolah dasar penggunaan internet yang kurang proporsional dapat mengabaikan peningkatan kemampuan yang bersifat manual seperti menulis tangan, menggambar, berhitung, dan sebagainya. Dalam hubungan ini guru perlu memiliki kemampuan dalam mengelola kegiatan pembelajaran secara proporsional dan demikian pula perlunya kerjasama yang baik dengan orang tua untuk membimbing anak-anak belajar di rumah masing-masing.

Dengan memperhatikan pengalaman beberapa negara sebagaimana dikemukakan di atas, jelas sekali TIK mempunyai pengaruh yang cukup berarti terhadap proses dan hasil pembelajaran baik di kelas maupun di luar kelas. TIK telah memungkinkan terjadinya individuasi, akselerasi, pengayaan, perluasan, efektivitas dan produktivitas pembelajaran yang pada gilirannya akan meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan sebagai infrastruktur pengembangan SDM secara keseluruhan. Melalui penggunaan TIK setiap siswa akan terangsang untuk belajar maju berkelanjutan sesuai dengan potensi dan kecakapan yang dimilikinya. Pembelajaran dengan menggunakan TIK menuntut kreativitas dan kemandirian diri sehingga memungkinkan mengembangkan semua potensi yang dimilikinya.

Dalam menghadapi tantangan kehidupan modern di abad cyber ini kreativitas dan kemandirian sangat diperlukan untuk mampu beradaptasi dengan berbagai tuntutan Kreativitas sangat diperlukan dalam hidup ini dengan beberapa alasan antara lain:

1. Kreativitas memberikan peluang bagi individu untuk mengaktualisasikan dirinya

2. Kreativitas memungkinkan orang dapat menemukan berbagai alternatif dalam pemecahan masalah

3. Kreativitas dapat memberikan kepuasan hidup, dan

4. Kreativitas memungkinkan manusia meningkatkan kualitas hidupnya. Dari segi kognitifnya, kreativitas merupakan kemampuan berfikir yang memiliki kelancaran, keluwesan, keaslian, dan perincian.

Sedangkan dari segi afektifnya kreativitas ditandai dengan motivasi yang kuat, rasa ingin tahu, tertarik dengan tugas majemuk, berani menghadapi resiko, tidak mudah putus asa, menghargai keindahan, memiliki rasa humor, selalu ingin mencari pengalaman baru, menghargai diri sendiri dan orang lain, dan sebagainya.

Karya-karya kreatif ditandai dengan orisinalitas, memiliki nilai, dapat ditransformasikan, dan dapat dikondensasikan. Selanjutnya kemandirian sangat diperlukan dalam kehidupan yang penuh tantangan ini sebab kemandirian merupakan kunci utama bagi individu untuk mampu mengarahkan dirinya ke arah tujuan dalam kehidupannya. Kemandirian didukung dengan kualitas pribadi yang ditandai dengan penguasaan kompetensi tertentu, konsistensi terhadap pendiriannya, kreatif dalam berfikir dan bertindak, mampu mengendalikan dirinya, dan memiliki komitmen yang kuat terhadap berbagai hal.

3 PENERAPAN TIK DALAM E-ADMINISTRASI

Dalam pendidikan, waktu merupakan unsur penting dalam menjamin mutu pendidikan. Tidak berlebihan jika waktu dikatakan unsur penting. Kenapa? karena dengan memanfaatkan waktu dengan sebaik-baiknya efisiensi kerja lebih mudah tercapai. Salah satu contoh yang selama ini pernah kita alami adalah dari segi non akademis yaitu administrasi. Kadang kala harus mengantre alam dalam pembayaran SPP. Begitu juga pada saat pendaftaran siswa baru. Kadankala jumlah ribuan siswa/mahasiswa baru harus mengantre untuk melakukan registrasi. Jadi terbayang sudah berapa lama harus menyediakan waktu dan mengorbankan pekerjaan lainnya.

Pengertian Administrasi Perkataan administrasi berasal dari bahasa latin yaitu “administrare”. Dalam bahasa Inggris perkataan administrasi itu adalah administration, yang dalam bahasa Indonesia mengandung arti melayani, memenuhi, mengatur, menyelenggarakan, suatu usaha atau suatu organisasi/lembaga dalam mencapai tujuannya secara intensif. Administrasi dapat diartikan sebagai usaha bersama untuk mendayagunakan semua sumber baik personil maupun meteril secara efektif dan efisien untuk mencapai tujuan tertentu.

Pengertian Komputerisasi adalah “Pengembangan dari suatu system yang mulanya tidak menggunakan komputer menjadi sistem yang menggunakan komputer system manual atau penggunaan manusia lebih tidak efisien dan tidak efektif dikarenakan memakan banyak waktu dan biaya untuk mengatasinya digunakan tenaga mesin berupa penggunaan komputer guna penghematan biaya dan dapat menyelesaikan pekerjaan secara tepat waktu” Jadi administrasi komputerisasi adalah usaha untuk mendayagunakan semua sumber daya berupa personil maupun materil untuk penyelengaraan suatu tujuan tertentu dengan bantuan perangkat/mesin yang disebut dengan komputer, guna mempercepat, mempermudah dan penghematan biaya dan waktu.

Ruang Lingkup Administrasi Sekolah Kegiatan administrasi sekolah dilakukan oleh Tata Usaha yang berfungsi sebagai administrator yang fungsinya mencatat secara rapi dan teratur, dapat mengetahui keadaan perlengkapan/barang dalam waktu singkat dan mengaitkan kebutuhan barang yang diperlukan. Bila dilihat dari tujuan administrasi, ruang lingkup dan prinsip-prinsip administrasi yang baik maka kegiatan administrasi yang dilakukan dalam upaya pencapaian tujuan pendidikan di sekolah dapat berjalan lancar bila ditunjang oleh sistem administrasi yang baik, sarana memadai, sumber daya manusia siap pakai dan yang paling penting adalah berkesinambungan.

Tujuan Administrasi Sekolah Tujuan administrasi adalah melaksanakan usaha-usaha tertentu agar dapat terlaksana sesuatu usaha dengan tujuan tersebut.

Administrasi sebagai suatu pengumpulan dan penyelesaian masalah operasional yang dihadapi sehari-hari di sekolah meliputi komponen-komponen sebagai berikut:

1. Program

2. Pengajaran

3. Kesiswaan

4. Kepegawaian

5. Perlengkapan / barang

6. Keuangan

Dalam pelaksanaan administrasi yang dilakukan dalam upaya pencapaian tujuan pendidikan di sekolah mempunyai tiga prinsip yaitu:

1. Administrasi harus bersifat praktis, dapat dikerjakan dengan mempertimbangkan situasi dan kondisi nyata di sekolah.

2. Administrasi harus bersifat sebagai sumber informasi bagi pengembangan pengelolaan pendidikan dan peningkatan proses kegiatan belajar mengajar.

3. Administrasi dilaksanakan melalui suatu sistem dan mekanisme kerja yang menujang pelaksanaan program kegiatan belajar mengajar di sekolah

Untuk itu TIK memegang peranan yang sangat vital dalam hal adminstrasi. Berikut akan diuraikan contoh-contoh penerapan TIK dalam E-Administrasi sebagai berikut:

1. Pembayaran SPP mahasiswa melalui Mobile Banking. Dengan layanan ini, mahasiswa/siswa tidak perlu mengantre untuk berjam-jam untuk mebayar SPP. Cukup dengan menstransfer melalui bank yang dipercaya.

2. Pendaftaran Online. Dengan layanan ini memungkin calon mahasiswa dapat mendaftar universitas tanpa harus datang. Pendaftaran dapat dilakukan kapanpun dan dimanapun.

3. Absensi finger print. Absensi ini menggunakan scaner yang sudah banyak disediakan oleh fendor. Dengan layanan ini para staf pegawai tidak perlu repot-repot membuat form absen yang selama ini masih bisa dimanipulasi. Dengan menggunakan sidik jari, otomatis yang tidak bisa diwakilkan dan status bolos maupun terlambat sudah dapat di catat.

4. Heregitrasi online. Dengan layanan ini mahasiswa dapat merencanakan studi pada semester selanjutnya dimanapun tanpa harus mengantre mengambil form secara manual. Selain itu, mahasiswa juga dapat melihat perolehan nilai akhir dengan mengkases situs kampus yang sudah tersedia.

Dari sekian banyak jenis layanan yang merupakan penerapan TIK, contoh diatas merupakan sebagian kecil saja. Tidak semua aspek dapat dilakukan secara online. Beberapa hal dalam pengurusan administrasi harus dilakukan secara online. Contohnya adalah dalam hal penandatangan oleh dosen maupun kegiatan wawancara.

Selain itu, ada beberapa langkah yang diperlukan dalam perencanaan membangun jaringan komputer untuk e-pembelajaran dan e-administrtasi adalah sebagai berikut:

1. Pendekatan Emerging dicirikan dengan pemanfaatan TIK oleh sekolah pada tahap permulaan. Pada pendekatan ini, sekolah baru memulai membeli atau membiayai infrastruktur TIK, baik berupa perangkat keras maupun perangkat lunak. Kemampuan TIK guru-guru dan staf administrasi sekolah masih berada pada tahap memulai eksplorasi penggunaan TIK untuk tujuan manajemen dan menambahkan TIK pada kurikulum. Pada tahap ini sekolah masih menerapkan sistem pembelajaran konvensional, akan tetapi sudah ada kepedulian tentang bagaimana pentingnya penggunaan TIK tersebut dalam konteks pendidikan.

2. Pendekatan Applying dicirikan dengan sudah adanya pemahaman tentang kontribusi dan upaya menerapkan TIK dalam konteks manajemen sekolah dan pembelajaran. Para tenaga pendidik dan kependidikan telah menggunakan TIK untuk tugas-tugas yang berkaitan dengan manajemen sekolah dan tugas-tugas berdasarkan kurikulum. Sekolah juga sudah mencoba mengadaptasi kurikulum agar dapat lebih banyak menggunakan TIK dalam berbagai mata pelajaran dengan piranti lunak yang tertentu.

3. Pendekatan Infusing menuntut adanya upaya untuk mengintegrasikan dan memasukkan TIK ke dalam kurikulum. Pada pendekatan ini, sekolah telah menerapkan teknologi berbasis komputer di laboratorium, kelas, dan bagian administrasi. Guru berada pada tahap mengeksplorasi cara atau metode baru di mana TIK mengubah produktivitas dan pekerjaan profesional mereka.

4. Pendekatan Transforming dicirikan dengan adanya upaya sekolah untuk merencanakan dan memperbaharui organisasinya dengan cara yang lebih kreatif. TIK menjadi bagian integral dengan kegiatan pribadi dan kegiatan profesional sehari-hari. Fokus kurikulum mengacu pada learner-centered (berpusat pada peserta didik) dan mengintegrasikan mata pelajaran dengan dunia nyata. TIK diajarkan sebagai mata pelajaran tersendiri dengan level profesional dan disesuaikan dengan bidang-bidang pekerjaan. Sekolah sudah menjadi pusat pembelajaran untuk para komunitasnya.

Kendala Administrasi Di Sekolah Pengelolaan administrasi tanpa bantuan suatu teknologi akan sangat tidak efisien dan membuang-buang biaya serta waktu percuma hanya untuk mengerjakan suatu pekerjaan sepele. Dengan adanya teknologi khususnya komputer pekerjaan administrasi akan sangat terbantu dan waktu dan biaya pun akan dapat dipergunakan secara efisien. Namun kendala bagi sekolah yang tidak memiliki sarana penunjang berupa komputer dan sumber daya manusia yang memadai dalam hal penanganan administrasi di sekolah. Karena dengan dua hal tersbut kelancaran administrasi akan berjalan secara efisien.

Ada beberapa faktor kendala penanganan administrasi yang dihadapi sebuah lembaga sekolah dalam hal administrasi komputerisasi:

1. Tidak adanya saran komputer. Komputer merupakan sarana penting yang tidak bisa diganti dengan sarana yang lain. Karena dengan komputer pekerjaan dapat dikerjakan dengan mudah dan cepat. Bisa dibayangkan bagaimana pengolahan administrasi hanya menggunakan mesin TIK jaman dulu. Berapa jumlah waktu dan biaya akan terbuang hanya untuk mengerjakan pembuatan daftar siswa.

2. Tidak adanya sumber daya manusia yang memadai. Sumber daya manusia juga tidak kalah penting dalam hal penanganan administrasi di sebuah lembaga pendidikan, karena tanpa ada seorang operator yang siap pakai dan bisa menggunakan komputer maka mustahil pekerjaan administrasi dapat terselesaikan dengan cepat, tepat dan baik.

3. Tidak sanggupnya sekolah menyediakan computer. Banyak sekolah yang belum sanggup membeli sebuah komputer dengan alasan dana yang tidak ada. Sehingga untuk menyelesaikan administrasinya sebuah sekolah harus mengeluarkan dana lebih untuk membayar jasa pengetikan ke sebuah rental komputer.

4. KESIMPULAN

Dari pembahasan diatas dapat di simpulkan sebagai berikut:

1. Kemajuan teknololgi tidak bisa di hindari mau tidak mau teknologi akan mengantikan pekerjaan manusia jika kita tidak sigap dan cepat menyusuaikan diri maka kita akan ketinggalan jauh sebab setiap hari perubahan itu terjadi.

2. Keniscayaan penerapan TIK (teknologi informasi dan komunikasi) sebagai E-learning dalam bidang pembelajaran menjadi keharusan yang mendesak agar peserta didik dapat mengakses ilmu pengetahuan dengan luas dimanapun mereka berada. Karena dengan adanya technology informasi dan komunikasi membuat dunia bagai tanpa jarak lagi.

3. Penerapan E–Administrasi sangat penting dalam mendukung mutu pendidikan karena efiesinsi sehingga semua pekerjaan dapat terselesaikan dengan cepat.

 

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Abraham Lee, B. & William Lawrence. 2009. Electronic discourse in language learning and language teaching. John Benjamins publishing Company.Amsterdam/Philadelpia.

Dantes, N. 2008. Pendidikan Teknohumanistic.Makalah.Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha.Singaraja Bali.

Djohar, As’ari. 2007. Pendidikan Teknologi dan Kejuruan. Tim Pengembangan Ilmu Pendidikan FIP-UPI.IMTIMA. Jakarta

http://www.seameo.org/vl/library/dlwelcome/publications/report/hom/21hom/proceed2.htm.diaksess, tanggal 13 Desember 2011

Mahendra, Jaka. 2011. Peran TIK dalam E- Pembelajran dan e-adiministrasi. Diakses di http://moodeveryday.wordpress.com/2011/08/29/peranan-tik-untuk-e-pembelajaran-dan-e-administrasi. tanggal 13 Desember 2011

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SUMMARY: INTERLANGUAGE AND THE ‘NATURAL’ ROUTE OF DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

The goal of this chapter to examine the claims that second language (L 2) learners acquire knowledge of a L2 in a fixed order (in stark contrast to behaviorist accounts of SLA).This emphasized the importance of environmental factors and first language (L1) interference.

To begin this chapter will briefly consider:

1. The background theory and research in L1 acquisition

2. The notion of interlanguage, a discussion of the L2 = L1 hypothesis

3. The caveats regarding the centrality of learner – internal process in accounts of SLA

MENTALIST ACCOUNT OF FIRST ALNGUAGE ACQUISITON

This sketch will consist of a composite picture drawn from the work of a number of psycholinguistics and linguistics.

Chomsky’s (1959) attack on skinner’s theory of language learning led to a reassertion of mentalist views of FLA. In place of the empiricist approach of behaviorist Chomsky’s stressed the active contribution of the child and minimized the importance of imitation and reinforcement. He claimed that the child’s knowledge of his mother tongue was derived from a universal grammar which specified the essential from that any natural language could take.

Lennerberg (1967) emphasized the biological prerequisites of language. Only homo sapiens was capable of learning language. Lennerberg argued that the child’s brain was specially adapted to the process of language acquisition, nut that this innate propensity was lost as maturation took place. Lennerberg argued that there was an age of resonance during which language acquisition took place as a generic heritage.

In summary, therefore mentalist views of L1 acquisition posited the following:

1. Language is a human-specific faculty

2. Language exists as an independent faculty in the human mind i.e. although it is part of the learner total cognitive apparatus; it is separate from the general cognitive mechanisms responsible for intellectual development.

3. The primary determinant of L1 acquisition is the child 'acquisition device', which is genetically endowed and provides the child with a set of principles about grammar.

4. The acquisition device atrophies with age.

5. The process of acquisition consists of hypothesis-testing, by which means the grammar of the learner’s mother tongue is related to the principles of the universal grammar.

The 1960s was also a period of intensive empirical research into L1 acquisition. Empirical research and theoretical developments in syntax longitudinal two major aspects: Many of the children early utterances were unique. Development was continuous and incremental, but could be characterized as a series of stages.

1. The length of children utterances gradually increases – Mean Length of Utterance

2. Knowledge of the grammatical system is built up in steps.

According to mentalist accounts of L1 acquisition, language acquisition is a universal process.

The term 'process' is used with two related meanings.

1. The stages of development that characterize the route the child follows (descriptive term)

2. How the child constructs internal rules and how he adjusts them from stage to stage. (Explanatory term)

INTERLANGUAGE

The term interlanguage was as first used by Selinker (1972) Nemser (1971): approximative systems Corder (1971): idiosyncratic dialects / transitional competence.

Interlanguage refers to the structured system which the learner constructs at any given stage in his development (i.e. interlanguage)second refers to series of interlocking systems(interlanguage continuum)

The assumptions underlying interlanguage theory (Nemser 1971)

1. At any given time the approximate system is distinct from the L1 and L2

2. At approximate systems form an evolving series?

3. The approximative systems of learners at the same stage of proficiency roughly coincide.

The concept of hypothesis-testing was used to explain how the L2 learner progressed along the interlanguage continuum. Corder (1967)

The notion of L1 interference was not rejected entirely. Selinker (1972) five principal processes operated in interlanguage

1. Language transfer

2. over generalization of target language rules

3. Transfer of training

4. Strategies of L2 learning

5. Strategies of L2 communication

Fossilization (Selinker): L2 learners stop learning when their interlanguage contains at least some rules different from those of the target language system. Fossilized structures can be realized as errors or as correct target language forms. Fossilized structures may not be persistent. The causes of fossilization are both internal and external. (Selinker and Lamendella)

The emphasis on hypothesis-testing and internal processes is direct borrowings from L1 acquisition theory. However mentalist theorizing cannot be easily carried over into SLA research.

Question for SLA: How did adults succeed in learning a L2 at all if recourse to the acquisition device responsible for L1 acquisition was not possible?

According to Slinker, SLA can proceed in two ways.

1. It can utilize the same mechanisms as L1 acquisition.

2. It can make use of alternative mechanisms.

Slinnker set out to address this issue. He suggested that those adult who successfully achieve native speaker proficiency in the TL do so because they continue to make use of the ‘acquisition device:

1. Lenneberg : latent language structure

2. Selinker: latent psychological structure

3. Dulay and Burt 1977: cognitive organizer creative construction

Selinker: three principal features of interlanguage focus:

1. Language-learner language is permeable

2. Language-learner language is dynamic

3. Language-learner language is systematic

“Interlanguage theory was based on behavioral events”.

ERROR ANALYSIS

Sridhar (1981) points out that error analysis have a long tradition prior to the early 1970s. The procedure for Error Analysis is spelled out in Corder (1974)

1. A corpus of language is selected.

2. The errors in the corpus are identified.

Corner (1971)points out the need of distinguish “Lapses”(i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of processing limitations rather than lack of competence) from Errors (i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of lack competence) he also points out that sentences can be “Overtly idiosyncratic” and “Covertly idiosyncratic”.

1. The errors are classified.

2. The errors are explained.

3. The errors are evaluated.

Error Analysis provides two kinds of information about interlanguage.

1. The linguistic type of errors produced by L2 learners

2. The psycholinguistic type of errors produced by L2 learners

The most significant contribution of Error Analysis lies in its success in elevating the status of errors from undesirability to that of a guide to the inner workings of the language learning process.

EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE INTERLANGUAGE HYPOTHESIS

Empirical research was required to decide on the nature of the interlanguage continuum. Was the continuum to be conceived as stretching from learner’s mother tongue to the target language? Corner (1978a) refers to this view of the continuum as a restructuring continuum and recreation continuum.

CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH

The morpheme studies were carried out to investigate the order of acquisition of a range of grammatical functions in the speech of L2 learners.

These studies were conducted according to a fixed procedure. Data were elicited from a sample of L2 learners. The produced an accuracy order (acquisition order).The acquisition order for various grammatical functions is more or less same. The only time that a different order occurs is when the elicitation instrument required the subjects to focus specifically on the form rather than the meaning of their utterances. Krashen (1977: 148)

The standard order that was reported was different from the order of morpheme acquisition reported for L1 acquisition.

LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

Longitudinal studies have tried to account for the gradual growth of competence in terms of the strategies used by a learner at different development points. The longitudinal studies discussed here are those that focus on the acquisition of particular grammatical subsystems–negatives, interrogatives, and relative clauses. It is from these studies that the strongest evidence for natural route of development comes.

Longitudinal studies of SLA provide data from different points of time and therefore enable a reliable profile of the SLA of individual learners to be constructed. The disadvantage lies in the difficulty of making generalizations based on the profiles of one or two learners.

A COMPOSITE LONGITUDINAL PICTURE

Ellis (1984) attempts to summarize the developmental progression which has been observed in longitudinal studies:

1. Characteristic by a standard word order, irrespective of weather or not this word order of the target language structure.

2. Developments of the learner expand his propositions to include all the most of the constituents required. And also begin to vary the word order of utterances in accordance with the word order pattern of the target language.

3. Grammatical morphemes begin to use systematically and meaningfully.

4. Consists of the acquisition of complex sentence structures such as embedded Wh-clauses and relative clauses modifying the subject of sentences.

SUMMARY

Interpreting the Empirical Evidence

L2 learners follow a standard sequence but vary in the order in which specific features are acquired.

The L2=L1 hypothesis

The L2=L1 acquisition hypothesis has not been proven in its strong form, although similar processes appear to operate in both types of acquisition. In SLA both the L1 and also maturational factors play a part.

Casden (1972) summary of the order of development for interrogatives in L1 acquisition is strikingly similar to that in SLA . here the main stages Casden identifies:

1. One word utterance used as questions.

2. Intonation question appear on a regular basis and there are some Wh-question learn as ready make chunks

3. Intonation question become more complicated , and productive Wh-question without inversion occurs

4. Inversion involving auxiliary e occur in yes/no question, but not in Wh-question.

5. Inversion occurs in Wh-question

6. Embedded Wh-question develop.

Sloben (1973) suggested that the way children process language in L1 acquisition can be explained in term of series of operating principles:

1. Pay intention to the ends of words.

2. The phonological of words can be systematically modified.

3. Pay intention to the order of words and morphemes.

4. Avoid interruption and rearrangement of linguistic units.

5. Underlying semantic should be marked overly and clearly

6. Avoid exceptions

7. The use of grammatical markers should make semantic sense.

SOME OUTSTANDING ISSUES

Methodological problems

The empirical research of the 1970s was three types:

1. Error analysis

2. Cross sectional studies (e.g. morphemes studies)

3. Longitudinal case studies.

The focus of grammar

The major theories issues concern

1. The starting point of the interlangugae continuum

2. The extend to which an adequate explanation of SLA requires a consideration of factor external to the learner as well as internal factors

3. The problems posed for interlanguage theory and the natural sequence by variability inherent in language learner language.

Origins of interlanguage

Corder (1981) considers to possibilities of starting points:

1. The learner starts from scratch in the same way as an infant acquiring his mother tongue

2. The learner starts from “some basic simple grammar”

Corder (1981: 150) suggests that language learners regress to an earlier stage in their own linguistic development before starting the process of elaboration. Ellis (1982a) argue that there is no need to posit that the learner remembers early acquisition stages.

Neglect of external factors

Mentalist accounts of language acquisition originated in the rejection of behaviorist explanations of how language was learnt.

The problem of variability

One of the principles of interlanguage theory is that language learner language systematic. Interlanguage theory does not cope easily with learner variability it struggles to explain why or when variability takes place. The natural route of development also ignores another type of variability, that which derives from individual differences.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1. What is Chomsky’s argue in Skinner theory?

He stressed the active contribution of the child and minimized the importance of imitation and reinforcement. He claimed that the child’s knowledge of his mother tongue was derived from a universal grammar which specified the essential from that any natural language could take.

2. What is principal views Chomsky’s and Lennerbeg theory about FLA?

Chomsky’s Lennerbeg

The child’s knowledge of his mother tongue was derived from a universal grammar Emphasized The Biological Prerequisites Of Language

3. According to mentalist account of L1 acquisition, language acquisition is a universal process. What does the process means?

The term 'process' is used with two related meanings.

1. The stages of development that characterize the route the child follows (descriptive term)

2. How the child constructs internal rules and how he adjusts them from stage to stage. (Explanatory term)

4. What is interlanguage?

Interlanguage refers to the structured system which the learner constructs at any given stage in his development (i.e. interlanguage) second refers to series of interlocking systems(interlanguage continuum)

5. According to Selinker there are five principal process operated in interlanguage, mentions its?

Five principal:

1. Language transfer

2. over generalization of target language rules

3. Transfer of training

4. Strategies of L2 learning

5. Strategies of L2 communication

6. What are differences among language learner, language is permeable, dynamic and systematic?

Permeable Dynamic Systematic

The rules that constitute the learner’s knowledge at any one stage are not fixed, but are open to amendment The L2 learner’s interlanguage is constantly Despite the variability of interlanguage, it is possible to detect the rule based nature of the learner’s use of the L2.

7. What is Lapses and errors?

Lapses Errors

Deviant sentences that are the result of processing limitations rather than lack of competence deviant sentences that are the result of lack competence

8. What is longitudinal studies focus?

Longitudinal focus on the acquisition of particular grammatical subsystems negatives, interrogatives, and relative clauses.

9. What is Ellis summarize developmental progression which has been observed in longitudinal studies:

1. Characteristic by a standard word order, irrespective of weather or not this word order of the target language structure.

2. Developments of the learner expand his propositions to include all the most of the constituents required. And also begin to vary the word order of utterances in accordance with the word order pattern of the target language.

3. Grammatical morphemes begin to use systematically and meaningfully.

4. Consists of the acquisition of complex sentence structures such as embedded Wh-clauses and relative clauses modifying the subject of sentences.

10. What are the most important effects of mentalist interpretation of SLA?

Reassessment of errors, and serve as evidence of the learners active contribution to acquisition.

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THE ROLE OF THE FIRST LANGUAGE

INTRODUTION
It is a popular belief that second language acquisition (SLA) is strongly influenced by the learner’s first language (L1).and the role of the L1 in SLA is a negative one. That is the L1 gets in the way or interferes with the learning of the L2, such that feature of the L1 are transferred into the L2.
The research literature reveals considerable disagreement about how pervasive the L1 is in SLA. On the one hand the popular belief is given support:
Taking a psychological point of view, we can say that there is never peaceful co-existence between two language systems in the learner, but rather constant warfare is not limited to the moment of cognition, but continues during the period of storing newly learnt ideas in memory (Marton 1981: 150)
On the other hand, the popular belief is rejected and the role of the L1 if not denied totally, is at least minimized.
Our data on L2 acquisition of syntactic structures in a natural environment suggest that interference does not constitute a major strategy in this area …it seems necessary to me to abandon the notion of interference as a natural and inevitable phenomenon in L2 acquisition. (Felix 1980b: 107)
In order to understand why there is such disparity regarding the role of the L1, it is necessary to examine the evolution of the notion of interference that Felix talks about behaviorist learning theory its development in terms of the constructive analysis hypothesis and the theoretical and empirical attack on this hypothesis which followed.

1. Behaviorist learning theory
Two key notions can be indentified in these discussions:
HABITS
The associations of a particular responses with a particular stimulus constituted a habit, and it was this type of regular behavior that psychologist such as Watson (1924) or Skinner (1957) set out to investigate. They wanted to know how habits were established.
Behaviorist psychologists attributed two important characteristic to habit
1. Observable
2. Automatic
The learning of a habit than could occur through:
1. Imitation (i.e. the learner copies the stimulus behavior sufficiently often for it to become automatic)
2. Reinforcement (i.e. the response of the learner is rewarded or punished depending on whether it is appropriate ot otherwise, until only appropriate responses are given)

ERRORS
Behaviors theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language. Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result. Transfer will be positive when the first and the second language habits are the same. In this case no errors will occur.
In behaviorist accounts of SLA, errors were considered undesirable. They were evidence of non learning, of the failure to overcome proactive inhibition. Some language teaching theorists even suggested that there was a danger of error becoming habit in their own right if they were tolerated.
The predict areas of potential error:
1. Classroom practice
2. Having examined
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
As Lado (1957), one of the prime movers of contrastive analysis, make clear, the teacher how has made comparison of the foreign language with the native language of the students will know better what real problem are and can provide for teaching them.
Contractive analysis had both a psychological aspect and linguistic aspect. The psychological aspect was based on behaviorist learning theory, and the linguistic aspect, in the first place at least, on structuralism linguistic.

THE PSYCOLOGICAL ASPECT OF CONSTRACTIVE ANALYSIS
The psychological rationable takes the from of the contrastive analysis hypothesis. This exists in a strong and a weak form (Wardhaugh 1970). The strong form claims that all L2 errors can be predicted by identifying the differences between the target language and the learner first language. As lee (1968:180) notes, it stipulates that the prime cause, or even the sole cause, of difficulty and error in foreign language is the interference coming from the learner’s native language. The weak form of the hypothesis claims only to be diagnostic.
Marton (1980) argues that whereas interference need not be a major in naturalistic SLA, it will always be present in classroom or foreign language learning. the difference of opinion represented in the two quotation in the introduction to this chapter can be explained in terms of this variable. Whereas Marton is writing about classroom SLA, felix is writing about naturalistic SLA.
Tylor (1975) argues that there are quantitative differences in errors produced by elementary and intermediate students

THE LINGUISTIC ASPECT OF CONSTRACTIVE ANALYSIS
A comparison of two languages can be carried out using any several different models of grammar. Initially the model used was that of structuralist linguist (e.g. bloomfield 1933; Fries 1952)
The differences (among languages) are great enough to prevent our setting up any system of classification that would fit all languages. (Bloomfield 1933) Chomsky’s (1967) theory of grammar proposed just such a model an as such offered a sounder theoretical basis for contrastive analysis (see Van Buren 1974 for fuller discussion of this point)
Most of contrastive studies carried out have been based on surface structure characteristic, such as those described by the structuralists, the procedure followed was:
1. Description (e.a. a formal description of the two languages; is made)
2. Selection (e.a. certain items, which may be entire subsystems such as the auxiliary system or areas known through error analysis to present difficulty, are selected comparison)
3. Comparison (e.a the identification of areas of difference and similarity)
4. Prediction (i.e. identifying which areas are likely to cause errors).
In (3), comparison, the simplest procedure was to identify which aspect of the two languages were similar and which were different. Here are some of the possibilities that comparison might reveal.
1. No difference between a feature of the first and second language
2. Convergent phenomena
3. An item in the first languages is absent in the target language
4. An item in the first language has a difference distribution from the equivalent item in the target language
5. No similarity between first language feature and the target language feature
6. Divergent phenomena
Such as (1) to (6) above, for classifying the way in two languages differ. It is quite another, however, to relate these linguistic differences to learning difficulty. Differences can be identified linguistically, but difficulty involves psychological considerations, Brown and martin (1965) and Prator (1967) has proposed that linguistic differences can be arranged in a hierarchy difficulty. Prator for example, suggests that (1) to (6) above are ordered from zero to greatest difficulty.
There several problems concerning the linguistic aspect of contrastive analysis:
1. The descriptive basis of the comparison has already been briefly considered.
2. Considered in the next section

CRITICISM OF THE CONSTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS
Since 1970s were of three major types of criticisms:
1. There were the doubts concerning the ability of contrastive analysis to predict error
2. There were a number of theoretical regarding the feasibility of comparing languages and the methodology of contrastive analysis.
3. There were reservation about whether contrastive analysis had anything relevant to offer to language teaching.
The crisis in contrastive analysis was the result:
1. Empirical
2. Theoretical
3. Practical considerations.

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH AND THE PREDICTABILITY OF ERRORS
Brooks (1960) for instance, gives four casus for learner error:
1. The learner does not the structural pattern and sp make a random response
2. The correct model has been insufficiently practiced
3. Distortion may be induced by the first language.
4. The students may follow the general rule which is not applicable in a particular instance.
Dulay and Burt (1973, 1974a) they indentified four type of error according to their psycholinguistic origins:
1. Interference like error
2. First language developmental errors
3. Ambiguous errors
4. Unique error
Dulay and Burt (1973) calculated the frequencies these error types in speech data of Spanish speaking children learning English.

THEORITICAL CRITICISME
The different issues will be considered under this heading, these are:
1. The attack on behaviorist accounts of language learning which was given impetus by Chomsky’s (1959). Review of skinner’s verbal Behavior
2. The nature of the relationship between the notion of difficulty as predictive by contractive analysis and error.
3. The problem concerning the linguistic basic of contractive analysis in particular translation equivalence and the need to accommodate the variability of learner performance when predicting error.
Chomsky’s attack on behaviorism struck at the psychological basis of the theories of language learning. It was argued by Chomsky and others that extrapolating from studies of animal behavior in laboratory condition, as skinner did could so nothing about how human being learn language in natural condition, the terms stimulus and response ere dismissed as vacuous when applied to language learning, because it not possible to tell what constituted the stimulus for a given speaker response.

PRACTICAL CRITISMS
The final set of criticism concern weather contrastive analysis is of any practical worth in language teachers. Sanders (1981), it was necessary to present learners with items which were similar to their first language and which were not therefore predicted to cause difficulty, as well as which items analysis appears less certain.

REAPPRAISAL
The reappraisal took two forms:
1. The nature of language transfer was re-examined in order to state more precisely the conditions under interference took place and the type of L1 knowledge that was utilized.
2. The contribution made by the L1 recast in a more cognitive framework to make it more acceptable to the mentalist views which dominated discussion of language acquisition following Chomsky’s attack on skinner neo behaviorist theory. The key concept in this new framework was that of “ strategy”

LANGUAGE TRANSFER RE-EXAMINED
There were three noteworthy development of the contrastive analysis hypothesis:
1. it was recognized that the difficulty predicted by contrastive analysis might be realized as avoidance instead of error
2. Empirical evidence was forthcoming to show that interference was more likely to take place where there was similarity between L1 and L2 items and when there was total difference.
3. Perhaps most important, it was recognize that error was multi factor phenomenon and that interference, as one of the factors interacted in complex ways with other factors.

AVOIDANCE
Schachter (1974) Schachter investigated the relative clauses produced by adult L2 learners from different language background. (e.g. Chinese and Japans). Bertkau also found that japans students scored lower of the comprehension relative clauses than Spanis learners. The criticism of contrastive analysis hypothesis advanced by Dulay and Burt on the basis of observed error frequencies was not fool-proof. Although contrastive analysis might fail to predict production error. It might still be successful in predicting comprehension error and avoidance of structures.

DEGREE OF SIMILARITY
The contrastive analysis hypothesis was founded on transfer theory, which stated that learning difficulty was the result of interference from old habits in the learning of new habit.
Lee (1968) reported that he experienced little interference from his mother tongue, English, when learning Chinese, and suggested that this was because the structures of the two languages were so different.
Interferences, in fact, appears to be more likely when there is a crucial similarity measure (Wode, 1976)between L1 and L2.he concluded that certain condition have to be met for what is commonly called interference to take place at all.
James (1980), notes that the Skaggs and Robinson hypothesis, framed in 1927, states that interference is greatest when there is certain degree of similarity, and cases when the learning task have what has been called “neutral resemblance”.
A MULTI FACTOR APPROACH
The early research that sought to challenge the role played by the L1 in SLA 9e.g. Dulay and Burt 1973) was conducted on the basis that an error was either the result of interferences or of some other factor such as developmental processing.
Hatch (1983a) explores in some depth the extend to which “naturalness” factors and interference can account for what is known about SLA. Hatch concludes that in the case of phonology and morphology both naturalness factor and L1 interference are at work, often in such a way that errors are doubly determined.
There are three sets of factors are involved in SLA
1. Universal Grammar
2. Specific factor about the learner’s L1
3. Specific factors about the L2
Gass (1980:180) proposes” the universal factors determine the general outline of learning. Language specific consideration (of either the native or the target language) can come into play where universal factors underdetermine the result.”

L1 INTERFERENCE AS ALEARNER STRATEGY
SLA as a process s in which the learner is actively engaged involves attributing to learners strategies for both sorting the L2 data into a form in which it can be stored and for making use of knowledge already in store.
As Srindhar (1981) points out, the notion of interference and strategy are no incompatible. Corder (1978b) outlines one away in which “interference” can be recast as a learner “strategy” in effect Corder’s proposal reframes the concept of interference as intercession. Whereas interference has been traditionally seen a feature of learning, intercession is to be considered, intercession is to be considered as a strategy of communication.

CONTRASTIVE PRAGMATICS
Contrastive analysis needs to consider not only linguistic contrasts but also pragmatics contrast such as the similarities and differences in the stylistic uses of items in the L1 and L2 and in form-function relationships. Contrastive pragmatics is a fairly recent development, although arguably it has its origins in Lados (1957) linguistic cross cultures, which sought to provide a frameworks for comparing cultural differences in the ways in which language are used.
Sajavarta (1981b) argues that the basic idea of contrasting language is a correct one. Riley (1981) suggested how this might be undertaken. One way is to take a particular function (e.g. suggesting). James (1981) notes that Widdowson (1975a) makes strong claims about the universality of specialized communicative functions such as those associated with scientific and technical discourse. James argues there can be such thing as contrastive pragmatics because there are no differences among languages at the level of use.
Contrastive pragmatics is not just about comparing the communicative functions of different languages. It is also about comparing how different languages express the same communicative function. Scharacter and Rutherford (1979), they observed these errors in the English of Chinese and Japanese learners.
1. Most of the food which is served in such restaurants have cooked already
2. Irrational emotion are bad but rational emotion must use for judging
3. Chiang’s food must make in the kitchen of the restaurant but Marty’s food could make in the house.
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
1. How L1 language interference SLA
SLA is strongly influence by the learner’s first language. It is come from foreign accents in the second language (L2) speech of learners. For example when Frenchman speaks English, his English sound French.
2. Why “habits” and “errors” to be the key notions in behaviorism?
Because of Habit have two characteristic: Imitation (i.e. the learner copies the stimulus behavior sufficiently often for it to become automatic) Reinforcement (i.e. the response of the learner is rewarded or punished depending on whether it is appropriate or otherwise, until only appropriate responses are given).
While errors were considered undesirable. They were evidence of non learning, of the failure to overcome proactive inhibition. Some language teaching theorists even suggested that there was a danger of error becoming habit in their own right if they were tolerated
3. In contrastive analysis had both psychological aspect and a linguistic aspect, what does those means?
Psychological aspect was based on behaviorist learning theory and linguistic aspect in the first place at least, on structuralist linguistics.


4. What is different between structuralists linguists and contrastive analysis?
Structuralist Linguist a comparison of two languages can be carried out using any several different models of grammar. While contrastive analysis is an area of considerable theoretical interest for general linguistic, those studies that are concerned with SLA.
5. Which aspects of the two languages were similar and which were different?
a. No difference between a feature of the first and second language
b. Convergent phenomena
c. An item in the first languages is absent in the target language
d. An item in the first language has a difference distribution from the equivalent item in the target language
e. No similarity between first language feature and the target language feature
f. Divergent phenomena
6. Why contrastive analysis hypothesis be criticism?
a. There were the doubts concerning the ability of contrastive analysis to predict error
b. There were a number of theoretical regarding the feasibility of comparing languages and the methodology of contrastive analysis.
c. There were reservations about whether contrastive analysis had anything relevant to offer to language teaching.
7. How many types of errors according to psycholinguistic?
a. Interference like error
b. First language developmental errors
c. Ambiguous errors
d. Unique error
8. What is the field discussion of reappraisal?
a. The nature of language transfer was re-examined in order to state more precisely the conditions under interference took place and the type of L1 knowledge that was utilized.
b. The contribution made by the L1 recast in a more cognitive framework to make it more acceptable to the mentalist views which dominated discussion of language acquisition following Chomsky’s attack on skinner neo behaviorist theory. The key concept in this new framework was that of “ strategy”
9. What is contrastive pragmatics?
Contrastive pragmatics is a fairly recent development, although arguably it has its origins in Lados (1957) linguistic cross cultures, which sought to provide a frameworks for comparing cultural differences in the ways in which language are used.
10. What is interference and intercession meaning according to Corder’s concept?
Interference has been traditionally seen a feature of learning, intercession is to be considered, intercession is to be considered as a strategy of communication.

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