ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING METHOD PROBLEM SOLVING

A. Introduction All teachers are likely to agree that they not only want their students to understand information that is presented to them but also want them to understand what they are doing when they are solving problems or conducting an experiment. In helping the students develop any real understanding of the subject taught, the teachers will have to teach them how to think, how to make decision, and how to learn from their experiences both in and out of school. To do this, the teachers need to select the teaching strategies carefully so that they suit both their students and the subject matter they are teaching. Jones & Idol (1990) stated that such strategies or approaches have in common an understanding that learners construct knowledge by making connections between their prior knowledge and new information, and analyze new learning activities to determine the most effective approach to achieve learning goals. Cognitive instruction seeks to facilitate learning by making students aware of their own mental processes and by providing direct instruction in thinking and learning strategies. Nevertheless, the teachers may not find it easy to decide what teaching strategy to use for a particular lesson because the number of factors that should be considered is quite large. Having content knowledge is simply not enough to enable the teachers to teach effectively. The teachers must know how to engage the students in the learning process and know how to organize information so that others can learn it. How students learn is as important as what students learn because their learning experiences directly influence their willingness to engage in future learning and their future learning strategies. As a result, the requirements of the learners, the learning context, and the content must guide the teachers` selection of teaching strategies (Killen: vii-x). In this paper, we, in group work, will present one of the very common teaching strategies, that is, problem solving. The discussion of this paper comprises introduction, theoretical framework of the strategy, the anticipation of the strategy, the strengths and weaknesses, and the implementation of problem solving as a teaching strategy in classroom activity. B. Theoretical Frameworks Many current views of problem solving, such as described in Keith Holyoak and Robert Morrison's Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning (2005) or Marsha Lovett's 2002 review of research on problem solving, have their roots in Gestalt theory or information processing theory. Gestalt Theory. The Gestalt theory of problem solving, described by Karl Duncker (1945) and Max Wertheimer (1959), holds that problem solving occurs with a flash of insight. Richard Mayer (1995) noted that insight occurs when a problem solver moves from a state of not knowing how to solve a problem to knowing how to solve a problem. During insight, problem solvers devise a way of representing the problem that enables solution. Gestalt psychologists offered several ways of conceptualizing what happens during insight: insight involves building a schema in which all the parts fit together, insight involves suddenly reorganizing the visual information so it fits together to solve the problem, insight involves restating a problem's givens or problem goal in a new way that makes the problem easier to solve, insight involves removing mental blocks, and insight involves finding a problem analog (i.e., a similar problem that the problem solver already knows how to solve). Gestalt theory informs educational programs aimed at teaching students how to represent problems. Information Processing Theory. The information processing theory of problem solving, as described by Allen Newell and Herbert Simon (1972), is based on a human computer metaphor in which problem solving involves carrying out a series of mental computations on mental representations. The key components in the theory are as follows: the idea that a problem can be represented as a problem space—a representation of the initial state, goal state, and all possible intervening states—and search heuristics—a strategy for moving through the problem space from one state of the problem to the next. The problem begins in the given state; the problem solver applies an operator that generates a new state, and so on until the goal state is reached. For example, a common search heuristic is means-ends analysis, in which the problem solver seeks to apply an operator that will satisfy the problem-solver's current goal; if there is a constraint that blocks the application of the operator, and then a goal is set to remove the constraint, and so on. Information processing theory informs educational programs aimed at teaching strategies for solving problems. 1. The Definition of Problem and Problem Solving A problem can be defined as any situation in which some information is known and other information is needed. The problem might be something that gives rise to doubt or uncertainty, or something that is hard to understand, or a difficult task or question, or inquiry that start from given condition to investigate facts or principles. Awhile, problem solving can be considered as the process of applying existing knowledge to a new or unfamiliar situation in order to gain new knowledge. According to Mayer and Wittrock, problem solving is “cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal when no solution method is obvious to the problem solver” (2006, p. 287). Thus problems solving is a form of inquiry learning. When used as a deliberate teaching strategy, problem solving can help students to release that the knowledge they have already gained can be applied to a new situations, and that this process can lead them to gain new knowledge. 2. The Distinction between Teaching Problem Solving and Problem Solving as a Teaching Strategy It is important to distinguish between teaching problem solving and using problem solving as a teaching strategy. Teaching problem solving is exactly that-teaching students how to solve problems. Meanwhile, problem solving as a teaching strategy is a technique in which problems are used deliberately as a means of helping students to understand or gain insight into the subject they are learning. So, in the first thing the emphasis is on solving problems and the latter the emphasis is on learning about the subject through solving problems. Quite clearly, the two concepts are closely related, and it is probably best to think of problem solving as a teaching strategy as being the broader concept that includes teaching problem solving. When problem solving is used as a teaching strategy, the emphasis should be on students learning about the subject, rather than simply learning to solve problems. The reason why this point is being stressed is that if we, teachers, simply teach students how to solve problems they may learn very little other than the sequence of steps they need to follow in order to solve a particular type of problem. There is considerable research evidence that students who are taught to solve problem with a “means-ends” approach can do so “with very little knowledge acquisition” (Owen&Sweller, !985, p.273). There is some evidence to suggest that problem solving depends very heavily on domain-specific knowledge. It means that the ability to solve problems in a particular area is so dependent on specific knowledge relevant to that area that one would expect minimal, if any, transfer of problem-solving ability from one area to another. (Schuell, 1990) In many classrooms, especially those of developing countries, the problem solving process may not be feasible because of factors beyond teachers’ control. However, this does not mean that learners in such countries should be disadvantaged from learning or acquiring skills that the problem-solving process offers. Learners can still attain such skills if teachers employ the problem-solving teaching approach. In this kind of teaching, teachers’ techniques, especially their questioning styles, can help learners develop critical and logical thinking, as well as the ability to generalize. Helping students develop problem solving skills is a frequently cited goal of science educators. The National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), in its 1980 position statement, advocated that science teachers help students learn and think logically, specifying that "...high school laboratory and field activities should emphasize not only the acquisition of knowledge, but also problem solving and decision making" (1985:48). Problem solving means many things to many people. For some, it includes an attitude or predisposition toward inquiry as well as the actual processes by which individuals attempt to gain knowledge. Usually, when teachers discuss problem solving on the part of pupils, they anticipate pupils will become involved with the thinking operations of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (considered as higher-level thinking skills). The American College Testing program has redesigned its college admissions test with a new emphasis on assessing higher-order thinking skills (EdLine,1989). 3. When Problem Solving as a Teaching Strategy Teaching and learning strategies are the purposeful actions and thoughts learners engage in for understanding, storing, and remembering new information and skills. Some learning strategies are observable, as in note-taking or writing a plan for problem solution. Many learning strategies, however, are non observable because they are purely mental processes. Examples of non-observable strategies are monitoring comprehension or activating prior knowledge. Since learning strategies can be used with any learning task, including mathematics and language tasks, they have considerable potential for enhancing the academic achievement of linguistic minority students. Three types of learning strategies are commonly discussed in the literature: metacognitive strategies, or the executive strategies that individuals use to plan for, monitor, or evaluate learning; cognitive strategies, the actual manipulation of learning materials by reorganization and grouping, elaboration or relating one new idea to another and relating new ideas to existing knowledge; and social-affective strategies, in which the learner calls on another person for assistance or works cooperatively with others on a common task (Pressley & Harris, 1990). An important reason for having students solve problems is to help them gain insight that will enable them to understand the subject matter better and to look at it from different perspectives and so problem solving is an ideal strategy to use in relation to group work. To achieve the benefits of group work, the teachers need to encourage students to discuss with one another what they understand the problem to be, how they feel about the problem, and the various steps in their attempts to solve the problem. In short, the most appropriate times for the teachers to use problem solving as a teaching strategy are as follows: • When the teachers want their students to gain a deep understanding of the subject matter, rather than just remembering bits of it. • When the teachers want to develop their students` thinking and reasoning skills-that is, their ability to analyze situations, to apply their existing knowledge to new situations etc. • When the teachers want to develop their students` problem solving skill- that is, their ability to assess and respond to new situations. • When the teachers want to challenge their students intellectually. • When the teachers want to encourage their students to take greater responsibility for their own learning. • When the teachers want students to understand the relationship between what they are studying and the real world (the relationship between theory and practice) • When the teachers want students` learning experiences to be varied and interesting. C. Anticipation of problem To use problem solving effectively as a teaching strategy you will need to develop certain teaching skills, just as the students will need to develop the thinking skills described previously. Fullerton (1992) suggests that you will also need to be able to engage in the following activities. 1. Formulating the problem You must help the students to examine the problem from a number of perspectives so that they will understand exactly what the problem is. 2. Analyzing the problem Before students try to solve a problem, you need to get them to break down the problem into its various components and assess the importance of each component. 3. Generating Ideas When you present students with open-ended problems (rather than problems that have a specific answer), one of your major tasks will be to help students generate ideas or data that can be used for solving the problem. To do this you might : • Help students to relate the problem situation to real situation • Help students to develop or explore analogies that will lead them to creative solutions for the problem. 4. Evaluating ideas When solving open-ended problems, students may have difficulty deciding on the relative merits of various ways of approaching the problem and/or the merits of various suggested solutions. You can help the students to select techniques for solving a problem, and to judge the merits of alternative solutions, by giving them specific criteria for making judgments. You could : • Have students list all the available alternative, examining the strengths and weaknesses of each, and then selecting the one that fulfils the problems objectives best. • Have students generate a list of ideas and evaluate each idea against explicit criteria, with all students having equal input into the selection of the final idea. In solving any problems, it helps to have a working procedure. We might want to consider this four-step procedure. Understand : before you can solve a problem you must first understand it. Read and re-read the problem carefully to find all the clues and determine what the question is asking you to find. What is the known ? What are the data ? What is the condition ? Plan : one you understand the question and the clues, it’s time to use your previous experience with similar problems to look for strategies and tools to answer the question. Do you know a related problem ? Try it : after deciding on a plan, you should try it and see what answer you come up with. Can you see clearly that the step is correct. Look back (reflect ) : once you tried it and found an answer. Check result, argument, result differently and a glance. When we use problem solving as the principal teaching strategy in a lesson, we are passing to students some of the responsibility for their own learning. If we have planned carefully, you will have created a situation in which the students can learn about the subject by solving the problem(s) that you have posed. If the students work on problems individually, the teacher should expect them to:  Satisfy the students that they know what the real problem is before they try to solve it  Ask question if they are not clear about any points  Develop a plan for solving the problem before they jump into calculations or experimentation or research  Keep a written record of how they attempted to solve the problem and the result they obtained  Make brief notes of what they learned by solving the problem If the students work in groups or pairs to solve problems, we should expect that they will do the things listed above and it addition:  Explain to one another what they understand about the problem and how it might be solved;  Co-operate with one another to complete the tasks and maximize their learning;  Explain their solutions to one another and show interest is one another’s explanations; and  Persist until they agree that they have solved the problem satisfactory. If the students work on the problem as a whole-class activity, you should expect that they will:  Explain what they understand by the problem and how they attempted to solve it.  Listen to and try to understand, the ideas and explanations of other students;  Pose questions and ask for clarifications;  Comment on the ideas and solution offered by other students; and  Help to draw conclusions from the problem-solving experience. D. Strengths and Weaknesses: 1. Strengths When used effectively, problem solving has a new number of advantages over direct instruction. In summary, these advantages are as follows:  Problem solving provides a challenge for students, and they can derive great satisfactions from discovering new knowledge for themselves.  Problem solving engages students actively in learning.  Problem solving helps students to develop new knowledge for themselves and feel responsible for their own learning.  Problem solving teach students that their solutions should be explainable and just justifiable.  Problem solving can show students that our subject is a way of thinking and doing things that should make sense to students, not just to the teacher or the textbook author.  Problem solving can be fun and rewarding learning experience.  Problem solving can develop students` critical thinking skills and their ability to adapt to new learning situations.  Problem solving can help to keep alive students` natural curiosity.  Problem solving encourages students to talk about the concepts they are trying to understand.  Problem solving develops students` ability to make informed judgements.  Problem solving provides students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge and to see that their knowledge has some real world applications.  Real-life problems can help students to integrate the knowledge they gain fro studying several different subjects.  Problem solving can help students to develop qualities such as resourcefulness, independence, patience and tenacity.  Problem solving can show students the value of exploring alternative approaches, in contrast to finding the answer as quickly as possible.  Appropriately challenging problems can engage students in learning long after the formal lesson is over.  Problem solving helps increase retention and provides a sound foundation from which students can transfer their knowledge to other situations.  Problem solving can create three conditions that assist in subsequent retrieval and appropriate use of new information: activation of prior knowledge, similarity between the contexts in which information is learned and later applied, and opportunity to elaborate on that information.  Problem solving can help students to develop the confidence to try things even when they think they might make a mistake, and to keep trying when they do make mistakes.  Problem solving can give the teachers a better understanding of the abilities and special talents of their students. 2. Weaknesses There are many occasions when we are teaching maybe more effective or efficient if we use techniques other than problem solving because it has the following limitation:  Unless the problems are motivating, students may see them simply as busywork.  Unless students are interested and believe that they can solve the problem, they may be reluctant to try  Appropriate problems take time to develop since each problem needs to be carefully structured to produce specific student learning outcomes.  Unless our students understand why they are attempting to solve a particular problem, they may not learn what we want them to learn. E. Implementation The implementation of problem solving strategy can be seen from using it through studying mathematics. At this studying, students should be able to solve problems encountered in the real world and to reason and talk about their solutions. In this approach to mathematics instruction, language plays a much larger role than has been the case in traditional computation-based programs. For example, students need good comprehension skills (both oral and reading) in order to understand a problem, and they also need good speaking skills in order to discuss the problem and explain their path to solution. Writing skills are also needed in mathematics if students are to write about their problem solutions (Dossey, 1989). The strategic approach generally recommended for mathematics problem solving is based on Polya’s model, which consists of understanding the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and looking back (Polya, 1957, 1973 in Chamot, A.U., & O'Malley, J.M. 1993). In addition to language skills, mathematics problem solving also requires a strategic approach to understanding and representing the problem, and making and carrying out a plan for its solution. The important of following the problem solving steps of the Polya model in sequence is a highly effective approach to solving word problems (Pressley & associates, 1990). Specific learning strategies appropriate for each step of the model include elaboration of prior knowledge, selective attention or focusing on important information, evaluating the plan, and representing the problem pictorially (Chamot & O’Malley, 1993). Cooperation, or solving problems in small groups, is another strategy that has a positive effect on problem solving and on helping students develop metacognitive awareness of their own mathematical thinking. Benefits of solving problems cooperatively include sharing strategies, communicating mathematically, and developing skills needed for independent learning. In addition to following specific problem solving steps, effective problem solvers maintain a reflective view of their own problem solving processes. They analyze related information, look for possible solutions, and check the accuracy of alternative solutions. Such metacognitive knowledge and executive control over problem solving provides the student with flexible and autonomous control over the learning process. In addition to metacognitive control, an effective problem solver will brainstorm a variety of alternative plans or solution strategies, activate what has already been learned, try the plan out with the current problem, and evaluate its application to the solution. The student’s evaluation of the plan must be performed with respect to the original problem representation rather than to the simple computational procedures used to find the answer (Noddings, Gilbert-MacMillan, &Leitz, 1983). The purpose of the representation step is to help students organize the data, define the problem and identify key issues. In this phase, we might ask students to:  frame the problem in their own words  define key terms and concepts  determine statements that accurately represent the givens of a problem  identify analogous problems  determine what information is needed to solve the problem In the solution phase, one develops and then implements a coherent plan for solving the problem. As we help students with this phase, we might ask them to:  identify the general model or procedure they have in mind for solving the problem  set sub-goals for solving the problem  identify necessary operations and steps  draw conclusions  carry out necessary operations In all cases, the more we get the students to articulate their own understandings of the problem and potential solutions, the more we can help them develop their expertise in approaching problems in our discipline. A few different ways we can introduce a problem to students include:  demonstrate a problem solution by systematically explaining each step and its rationale  ask the students how they would approach solving the problem  ask the students to help we solve the problem by posing questions at key points in the process  have the students work together in small groups (3 to 5 students) to solve the problem, and then have the solution presented to the rest of the class (either by us or by a student in the group) Students in problem-solving classes indicate that they appreciate:  clear step-by-step explanations  questions posed at key points in the solution  overviews and summaries of problem-solving approaches  opportunities to ask questions about problems and solutions  explicit links to similar problems  opportunities to interact with each other and with the instructor while working towards solving problems. To make the students to become better at problem solving, the teacher needs to give them appropriate practice by doing the following activities: a) Deciding what the teacher wants students to learn. b) Selecting or developing appropriate problems. c) Presenting the problems to students in a stimulating way so that they are encouraged to try to solve them. d) Monitoring the students` progress and encouraging them to think about their problem-solving processes. e) Helping students to understand how problem solving is helping them to learn about the subject they are studying. Teachers` Activities Developed during Problem Solving Lesson To use problem solving effectively as a teaching strategy the teacher will need to develop certain teaching skills by engaging in the following activities ( Killen, : a) Formulating the problem by highlighting the parameters of the problem and helping the students view the problem from new perspectives. b) Analyzing the problem by assisting students to identify the major elements in a problem and assisting students to identify how the components of a problem interact. c) Generating ideas by helping students to relate the problem situation to real situations with which they are familiar and helping students to develop or explore analogies that will lead them to creative solutions for the problem. d) Evaluating ideas by having students list all the available alternatives and having students generate a list of ideas and evaluate each idea against explicit criteria. F. Conclusion  A problem can be defined as any situation in which some information is known and other information is needed.  Problem solving can be considered as the process of applying existing knowledge to a new or unfamiliar situation in order to gain new knowledge.  Thus problems solving is a form of inquiry learning  Learners can still attain such skills if teachers employ the problem-solving teaching approach  In this kind of teaching, teachers’ techniques, especially their questioning styles, can help learners develop critical and logical thinking, as well as the ability to generalize.  When teachers discuss problem solving on the part of pupils, they anticipate pupils will become involved with the thinking operations of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation  The American College Testing program has redesigned its college admissions test with a new emphasis on assessing higher-order thinking skills (EdLine, 1989)  The purpose of the representation step is to help students organize the data, define the problem and identify key issues  In all cases, the more we get the students to articulate their own understandings of the problem and potential solutions, the more we can help them develop their expertise in approaching problems in our discipline.  When we use problem solving as the principle teaching strategy in a lesson, we are passing to students some of the responsibility for their own learning.  When used effectively, problem solving has a new number of advantages over direct instruction  Appropriate problems take time to develop since each problem needs to be carefully structured to produce specific student learning outcomes. References Chamot, A.U., & O'Malley, J.M. 1993. The CALLA handbook: How to implement the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Duncker, K. (1945). On problem solving. Psychological Monographs, 58(5), Whole No. 270. Jones, B.F., & Idol, L. 1990 Introduction. In B.F. Jones & L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction (pp. 1-13). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Holyoak,, K. J., & Morrison, R. G. (Eds.). (2005). The Cambridge handbook of thinking and reasoning. New York: Cambridge University Press. Mayer, R. E., & Wittrock, R. C. (2006). Problem solving. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology(2nd ed., pp. 287–304). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Noddings, N., Gilbert-MacMillan, K., & Leitz, 5. 1983, April. What do individuals gain in small group mathematical problem solving? Paper presented at the annual meetings of educational Research Association, Montreal. Pressley, M. & Associates. 1990. Cognitive strategy instruction that really improves children’s academic performance. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. APPENDIX A WORD PROBLEM PROCEDURE The CALLA Mathematics curriculum has been supplemented with a Word Problem Procedure (WPP) which Spanos (Arlington Public Schools,, 1991) developed for use in his high school CALLA math class. This procedure is in the form of a one-page worksheet and contains the following 11 steps: 1. Choose a partner or partners. Write your names above. 2. Choose a problem. Write the problem in the space below. 3. Select one student to read the problem aloud. Re-read the problem if necessary. Together, discuss the vocabulary in the problem and circle any words you don’t understand. Write the words below. 4. Find the meanings of the words by using a bilingual dictionary, asking your partner(s), or asking your teacher. 5. Write what the problem asks you to find below. 6. Write the operation(s) you need to solve the problem below: Add? Subtract? Multiply? Divide? 7. Solve the problem in the space below. 8. Check your answer. 9. Explain your answer to your partner(s). Write your explanation below. 10. Explain your answer to the class. 11. Write a similar problem on the back of this page. Steps 1-4 correspond to Step 1 of Polya’s method (Understanding the Problem), Steps 5-6 correspond to Step 2 of Polya’s method (Devising a Plan), Step 7 to Polyas Step 3 (Carrying out the Plan), and Steps 8-11 to Polyas Step 4 (Looking Back). The steps in the procedure are analyzed in the curriculum guide in terms of the learning strategies that are involved, e.g., Steps 1-6 are planning steps and therefore invite metacognitive strategies, while Steps 7 and 8 require students to manipulate the mathematical content and therefore involve cognitive strategies. The entire Word Problem Procedure calls on students to use social affective strategies by asking for clarification and working cooperatively on the problem solution. Finally, students use academic language related to mathematics as they read, discuss, write individual explanations of how the problem was solved, and explain to their partners and the class how they arrived at the answer. In this way, the WPP embodies the CALLA philosophy of integrating content, academic language, and learning strategies. APPENDIX B INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THINK-ALOUD AND RESTROSPECTIVE INTERVIEWS STUDENT INTERVIEW GUIDE Part I: Warm-Up - Background Information (2 minutes) 1. Introduce self and ask student’s name. 2. What is your native language? 3. What country are you from? 4. How long have you been in the U.S.? 5. Did you go to school in your country? What grade did you finish? 6. Explain purpose of interview. Part II: Think-Aloud Warm-up (3 minutes) 1. Here’s an easy problem. Can you tell me what you are thinking while you solve it? Student is given a sheet of paper with this problem: 53 -28 2. (If student needs more practice with thinking aloud). Do this problem, too: 15 x3 If student falls silent while working, say TELL ME WHAT YOU’RE THINKING. Part III: Word Problem Think-Aloud (5 minutes) 1. Start with Word Problem 1. If the student is completely unable to handle it, use Word Problem 2. Say, “Okay, why don’t we try this problem instead.” 2. Script: “I’d like you to try to solve this problem.” (Hand Word Problem 1 to student.) “Here’s a pencil and a calculator, if you want to use it. You can write or put anything on this paper to help you solve the problem. Why don’t you read the problem aloud first, and then talk aloud while you solve the problem.” Say TELL ME WHAT YOU’RE THINKING. WHAT STRATEGIES ARE YOU GOING TO USE? If student doesn’t understand, say JUST TELL ME WHAT YOU’RE THINKING. WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO DO? If, in spite of prompting, student does not want to talk while solving the problem, ask after he or she has completed the problem: “How did you get that answer? Can you tell me what you did?” Have the student go back through each step and describe what he or she did. WORD PROBLEM 1 Carlos and Gloria work at McDonald’s at 4238 Wilson Boulevard. Carlos works 8 hours per week and gets $4.50 per hour. Gloria works 6 hours per week and gets $6.15 per hour. Who works more? Who gets more money per week? How much more? WORD PROBLEM 2 (ALTERNATE) In 1989, there were 36 students in the HILT math class. In 1990, there were 27 students. Which year had more students? How many more students were there in that year? Part IV: Learning Strategy Discussion (5 minutes) Say WHAT STRATEGIES DID YOU USE? if student does not understand, ask WHAT DID YOU DO TO HELP YOU SOLVE THE PROBLEM? if student is not able to generate answers, ask the following questions in sequence: 1. “How did you feel about solving the problem?” (If necessary, ‘Were you nervous? Interested?) 2. “Have you solved other problems like this one?” (if yes, “Did you remember how you did another problem to help with this one?”) 3. “Did you understand the problem right away?” (If no, “What did you do about it?”) 4. “Did you make a plan of what to do?” (If yes, “Tell me about your plan.”) 5. “Did you look for important words to solve the problem?” (If yes, “What were they?”) 6. “Were there any words you didn’t understand?” (If yes, “What were they? Could you solve the problem anyway without those words?”) 7. “How did you decide which numbers to use?” 8. “Did you cross out, or not use, information that you didn’t need?” (If yes, “What was it? What didn’t you need?”) 9. “How did you decide which operation to use?” 10. “Did you make a picture in your head or draw a picture or table?” (If yes, “Can you show/tell me about it?”) 11. “Did you check your answer? (If yes, “How did you do that?”) THANK YOU FOR YOUR WORK. YOU DID A REALLY GOOD JOB. APPENDIX C CALLA TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE Teacher Name ____________________Date____________________ 1. Check which of the following math strands you have covered this year: _______ Whole Numbers _______ Fractions _______ Time & Money _______ Ratio & Percent _______ Geometry _______ Decimals _______ Graphs, Charts, Statistics, & _______ Probability _______ Other (Describe_______________________________ ) 2. Check the average amount of time spent on word problems: _____ once a week _____ 4-5 times a week _____ 2-3 times a week _____ part of every period 3. Do you think it is necessary to teach learning strategies directly (i.e., to name the strategy and tell why it is important)? __ Yes __ No Why or why not? _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 4. Which learning strategies do you teach directly (D) or indirectly (I)? __ D __ I Elaborating prior knowledge __ D __ I Cooperation __ D __ I Graphic Organizers __ D __ I Classifying/grouping __ D __ I Making inferences/predicting __ D __ I Summarizing __ D __ I Using images/visualizing 5. Do you teach problem-solving strategies? __ Yes __ No 6. If yes, check which strategies you use*: __ Finding needed information __ Finding extra information __ Cooperative learning __ Guessing & checking __ Choosing operations __ Making organized lists/tables __ Drawing pictures/diagrams __ Finding patterns __ Writing simple problems __ Solving simpler problems __ Using logical reasoning __ Working backward __ Writing number sentences 7. Additional comments _____________________________________ ________________________________________________________

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BILLINGUALISM AND POLYGLOSSIA

Before we discuss further definition of Polyglossia, we shall consider the related term in which has close relation to the topic will be discussed. We are going to start with the term Diglossia. 

 1. DIGLOSSIA

 1.1 What is diglossia? 

The French term diglossie was first coined (as a translation of Greek, ‘bilingualism’) by the Greek linguist, Ioannis Psycharis. Charles A. Ferguson in his article “Diglossia” in the journal Word (1959) intensively defines diglossia as follows: “DIGLOSSIA is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any section of the community for ordinary conversation (Ferguson, 1959 in Wardhaugh, 1986)” Ferguson’s definition considers diglossia as a kind of bilingualism in a given society in which one of the languages is “High” variety, i.e. has high prestige, and another of the languages is “Low” variety, i.e. has low prestige. “High” variety is usually the written language, whereas “Low” variety is the spoken language. In formal situations, “High” variety is used; in informal situations, “Low” variety is used (Wardhaugh, 1986). According to Ferguson (1959) in Hudson (2002), “High” variety and “Low” variety are always close genetically-related language. On the other hands, Fishman (1967) in Hudson (2002) introduces the notion that diglossia could be extended to situations found in many societies where forms of two genetically unrelated (or at least historically distant ) languages occupy the H and L niches, such that one of the languages (e.g. Latin in medieval Europe), is used for religious, educational, literacy and other such prestigious domains, while another language (in the case of medieval Europe, the vernacular languages of that era) is rarely used for such purposes, being only employed for more informal, primarily spoken domains (Hudson, 2002). Because of the different notions of diglossia proposed by Ferguson (1959) and Fishman (1967), studies on diglossia have differed with regards to the question of which cases should be considered to constitute diglossia and which should not (Myhill, 2009). According to the preference of the researcher, the reference of the term diglossia may be limited to cases in which H and L are considered to be versions of the same language and H is not the everyday language of anyone in the same country (e.g. Standard Arabic (H) vs. Colloquial Arabic (L) in e.g. Syria), or it may also be used to refer to cases in which H is spoken as the everyday language of some geographically or ethnically distinct group in the same country (e.g. Italian (H) vs. Sicilian (L) in Italy or Standard English (H) vs. Black English (L) in the United States), or it may even include cases in which H and L are different languages (e.g. Urdu (H) vs. Punjabi (L) in Pakistan) (Myhill, 2009). 1.2 Characteristic Features of Diglossia Research on diglossia has concentrated on a number of variables and important questions of the characteristic features of diglossia, such as function, prestige, literary heritage, acquisition, standardization, stability, grammar, lexicon, and phonology of H and L varieties (Schiffman, 2001). 1. Function The functional differentiation of discrepant varieties in a diglossia is fundamental, thus distinguishing it from bilingualism. H and L are used for different purposes, and native speakers of the community would find it odd if anyone used H in an L domain or L in an H domain. 2. Prestige In most diglossias examined, H was more highly valued (had greater prestige) than was L. The H variety is that of ‘great’ literature, canonical religious texts, ancient poetry, of public speaking, of pomp and circumstance. The L-variety is felt to be less worthy, corrupt, ‘broken’, vulgar, undignified, etc. 3. Literary Heritage In most diglossic languages, the literature is all in H-variety; no written uses of L exist, except for ‘dialect’ poetry, advertising, or ‘low’ restricted genres. In most diglossic languages, the H-variety is thought to be the language; the L-variety is sometimes denied to exist, or is claimed to be only spoken by lesser mortals (servants, women, children). In some traditions (e.g. Shakespeare’s plays), L-variety would be used to show certain characters as rustic, comical, uneducated, etc. 4. Acquisition L-variety is the variety learned first; it is the mother tongue, the language of the home. H-variety is acquired through schooling. Where linguists would therefore insist that the L-variety is primary, native scholars see only the H-variety as the language. 5. Standardization H is strictly standardized; grammars, dictionaries, canonical texts, etc exist for it, written by native grammarians. L is rarely standardized in the traditional sense, or if grammars exist, is written by outsiders. 6. Stability Diglossias are generally stable, persisting for centuries or even millennia. Occasionally L-varieties gain domains and displace the H-variety, but H only displaces L if H is the mother tongue of elite, usually in a neighboring polity. 7. Grammar The grammars of H are more complex than the grammars of L-variety. They have more complex tense systems, gender systems, agreement, and syntax than L-variety. 8. Lexicon Lexicon is often somewhat shared, but generally there is differentiation; H has vocabulary that L lacks, and vice-versa. 9. Phonology Two kinds of systems are discerned. One is where H and L share the same phonological elements, but H may have more complicated morphophonemics. Or, H is a special subset of the L-variety inventory. (But speakers often fail to keep the two systems separate.) A second type is one where H has contrasts that L lacks, systematically substituting some other phoneme for the lacking contrast; but L may ‘borrow’ elements as tatsamas, using the H-variety contrast in that particular item. 1.3 TYPES OF DIGLOSSIA There are some types of Diglossia. Joshua Fishman classifies it into two. They are Biglossia and Digraphia. Biglossia can be defined as Diglossia involving two completely separate languages, where the varieties in question are varieties of different languages. Another one is Digraphia. It refers to the use of more than one writing system for the same language (H is for written use, L is for conversational use). Digraphia can be synchronic, meaning that these writing systems are used at the same time for the same language, or diachronic, meaning that the writing system used has changed over time, one writing system succeeding another over time. The best example of synchronic Digraphia is Serbian. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet and an adapted Latin alphabet are both widely used in Serbia in a large variety of contexts and most Serbian speakers are able to read and write in both. Some authorities consider Japanese to be a case of synchronic Digraphia, as it has three different scripts. Other authorities disagree, however, pointing out that all three scripts are part of the same writing system, and have a defined role to play within that system. It is not always easily achieved writing an entire text in three different versions, one in each script. In Serbian this is always possible. An element of synchronic Digraphia is present in many languages not using the Latin script, in particular in text messages and when typing on a computer which does have the facility to represent the usual script for that language. In such cases, Latin script is often used, although systems of transcription are often not standardized. In Diachronic Digraphia, there are many examples where a language used to be written in a script that was replaced later. Examples are Romanian (which originally used Cyrillic then changed to Latin); Turkish (Arabic then Latin), and many languages of former Soviet Central Asia, which abandoned the Cyrillic script after the dissolution of the USSR. Pauwels classifies Diglossia into three; they are Interlingual diglossia, Intralingual diglossia, and Diglossia as a ‘continuum’. Interlingual diglossia is diglossia with two different languages while Intralingual diglossia is diglossia where both derived from same language. Diglossia as a ‘continuum’ is ranging from Rigid Diglossia (clearly defined codes/situations for use) to Fluid Diglossia (lots of overlapping of use). Fasold classifies Diglossia into three; they are Double-Nested Diglossia, Polyglossia, and Code-switching. In Double-Nested Diglossia, there are two Hs and one L (‘lower’ H acts as H and L). In other words, it is subdiglossic situations within major diglossic situations with distinctive difference in varieties of a language (or languages) and their functions. For example, a village situation in India, north of Delhi. The high variety is Hindi and the low variety is called (by Gumperz) Khalapur. Khalapur is spoken by all villagers and is always used in local interactions. Hindi is learned in school or by having lived in the cities. Better educated and socially prominent villagers speak Hindi in matters relating to commerce and politics (ie, outside village matters). Polyglossia is the coexistence of multiple languages in the same area. Polyglossia is also defined as the use of three or more varieties in a community with a function differentiation, a shared language value system and common norms. And Code Switching can be defined as a linguistics term denoting the concurrent use of more than one language, or language variety, in conversation (2 languages used in one situation/sentence). The term code-switching is used when examining how people speak in different situations. Code is thought of as a more neutral way of expressing dialect and there are generally thought to be two codes, a prestige code and an everyday code. The term diglossia is also used to describe a person’s ability to switch from one dialect or code to another. The subtle difference between code-switching and diglossia is that diglossia is thought to be a more intentional changing of dialect due to situation and code-switching is perceived as a more subconscious change. In a diglossic situation, some topics and situations are better suited to one language over another. Joshua Fishman proposes a domain-specific code-switching model (later refined by Blom and Gumperz) wherein bilingual speakers choose which code to speak depending on where they are and what they are discussing. For example, a child who is a bilingual Spanish-English speaker might speak Spanish at home and English in class, but Spanish at recess. 1.4 POLYGLOSSIA Polyglossia is defined as the use of three or more varieties in a community with a function differentiation, a shared language value system and common norms. Polyglossia is defined as the coexistence of multiple languages in the same area. (http://www.wordnik.com/words/polyglossia) Basically polyglossia situations involve two contrasting varieties (high and low) but in general it refers to communities that regularly use more than two languages. Polyglossia is a part of diglossia but in polyglossia it involves more languages used. 2. Bilingualism 2.1 What is bilingualism? The term bilingualism is defined as the ability to use and to speak two languages. Language cannot be divorced from the context in which it is used. It is not produced in a vacuum; it is enacted in changing dramas. Every kind of communication includes one speaker, one canal (the topic) and one listener. Functional bilingualism moves into language production across the encyclopedia of everyday contexts and events. It concerns when, where and with who people use these two languages. For instances: - A child who is beginning to talk, speaking English to one parent and Welsh to the other. - A Danish immigrant in New Zealand who has not had contact with Danish for the last 40 years. - A schoolchild from an Italian immigrant family in the USA who increasingly uses English both at home and outside but whose older relatives address him in Italian only. - A young graduate who has been studying French for eleven years. - A personal interpreter of an important public figure. - The Turkish wife of a Turkish immigrant in Germany who can converse orally in German but cannot read or write it. - A Japanese airline pilot who uses English for most of his professional communication. - A fervent Catalanist who uses Catalan at home and work, but is exposed to Spanish in the media etc and is fully conversant in both. 2.2 Describing Individual Bilingualism Individual Bilingualism can be described in terms of: 1. AGE: This can be classified into two; they are early bilingualism and late bilingualism. Late bilingualism is defined in contrast to early bilingualism, because late bilingualism is developed after the critical period for language learning. In such cases, it is thought that when people acquire their second language through immersion in a community that speaks it, implicit memory plays more of a role, whereas when they do so solely through formal classroom studies, explicit memory is more involved. 2. CONTEXT: This can be classified into two; they are natural/ascribed bilingualism and achieved/secondary bilingualism. 3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SIGN AND MEANING: This can be classified into three; they are coordinated bilingualism, subordinate bilingualism, and compound bilingualism. In coordinated bilingualism, children develop two parallel linguistic systems, so that for any one word, the child has two signifiers and two signifieds. One situation in which a child may develop coordinated bilingualism is when the two parents have different mother tongues and each parent speaks only his or her own mother tongue to the child. In response, the child constructs two separate linguistic systems and can handle each of them easily. Another such situation is when relatively young children who have already mastered their mother tongue are adopted by parents who speak a different language. Once again, the distinction between the two languages is crystal-clear for the child. A sub-group of the latter is the subordinate bilingual, which is typical of beginning second language learners. In compound bilingualism, children have only one signified for two signifiers and so cannot detect the conceptual differences between the two languages. Compound bilingualism is what occurs when both parents are bilingual and both parents speak to the child in both languages indiscriminately. The child will grow up to speak both languages effortlessly and without an accent, but will never master all the subtleties of either of them. In other words, the child will not really have a mother tongue. 4. ORDER AND CONSEQUENCE: This can be classified into three; they are incipient, ascendant bilingualism, and recessive bilingualism. The term passive or recessive bilinguals refer to bilinguals who are gradually losing competence in one language, usually because of disuse. As the term “recessive” seems to have negative connotations, we will use the term ‘passive bilinguals’ to describe this group of bilinguals. For example, a Dutch migrant in Australia may find himself isolated from the Dutch speaking community as his daily encounters are with English speaking Australians. Over time, his proficiency level in Dutch may deteriorate due to the long period of non-use. 5. COMPETENCE: This can be classified into two; they are maximalist/ minimalist views and semilingualism. The issue of bilinguals who appear to have limited level of proficiency in both first and second language has dominated some discussions on the issue of degree of bilingualism. The term semilingualism was first used by Hansegard (1968, cited in Baker 2006: 9) to refer to Finnish minority students in Sweden who lack proficiency in both their languages. Hansegard described semilingualism in terms of deficit in six language competences: - Size of vocabulary - Correctness of language - Unconscious processing of language (automatism) - Language creation (neologization) - Mastery of the functions of language (e.g. emotive, cognitive) - Meanings and imagery According to these parameters, a semilingual is both quantitatively and qualitatively deficient in comparison to monolinguals, and semilingualism has been blamed for the low academic achievement of minority children. Over the years, the term has accumulated pejorative connotations and researchers who invoked the use of this concept have been widely rebutted for ignoring the socio-political concerns implicit in the existence of semilinguals. Many authors argued that semilingualism is rooted in an environment which is not conducive to ongoing bilingualism, where the speakers were socially, politically and economically disadvantaged. Therefore, semilingualism is a situation which is engineered by the environment and not a consequence of bilingualism since a monolingual in the same environment would have faced the same degree of struggle in their academic endeavours. Researchers who highlight the correlation of semilingualism to poor academic achievement without carefully separating the symptoms from the cause only serve to perpetuate the negative stereotype of minority children. Equally critical is how this perception translates into educational policies and curriculum for minority children, though the term semilingualism is not fashionable anymore, the idea of low achieving bilinguals who are linguistically competent neither in the first language nor in the second language is still discussed, albeit under a different label. Cummins (1994) acknowledges that labeling someone as a ‘semilingual’ is highly negative and may be detrimental to children’s learning, and proposes an alternative label ‘limited bilingualism’ to describe the same condition. 6. USE/FUNCTION: reflect the view that the language is not an abstract entity, but a tool employed for taking part in acts of communication. It means the ability of a person to use two or more languages as a means of communication in most situations and to switch from one language to the other if necessary. 7. ATTITUDE: Consciousness of Bilingualism Attitudes are more accessible to observation in the context of societal bilingualism, as for example in the case of bilinguals among minority groups, where it is easier to notice that cultural, societal and motivational factors can influence the group’s maintenance or loss bilingualism. 2.3 Bilingual Patterns The ways in which peoples can become bilingual are: 1. Immigration. It involves leaving the country of origin in order to settle, once and for all, in a ‘host’ country 2. Migration. People moved across frontiers in search of work and better living condition 3. Close contact with other linguistics groups is contact between members of different language groups. It may be brought about by urbanization or by internal migration and bilingualism is likely to be found among children as well as adults 4. Schooling. Here, Education can play a very important role in making children bilingual. Education system may deliberately be geared towards fostering bilingualism 5. Growing up in a bilingual family. The children came from families where one parent spoke the language of the wider community and the other parent a ‘foreign language’. 2.4 Types of Bilinguals Skutnabb-Kangas (1984a) suggests a classification of the world’s bilinguals into four groups. She identifies the group as follows: 1. Elite bilinguals. These are peoples who have freely chosen to become so (example, because they want to work or study abroad), and the children who belong to families who change their country of residence relatively often or who are sent to be educated abroad. 2. Children from linguistic majority. These are children who learn another language (example, that a minority group ) at school, such as in immersion programmers or in foreign language classes 3. Children from bilingual families. These are children whose parents have different mother tongues. Bilingualism will be desirable because there are internal family pressures requiring the child to communicate in the language of parent (s). 4. Children from linguistics minorities. These children have parents who belong to a linguistic minority; they are under intense external pressure to learn language of the majority, particularly if the language of the minority is not officially recognized. 2.5 The Relationship between Bilingualism and Diglossia (Joshua Fishman) BILINGUALISM AND DIGLOSSIA: • Occurs when definite roles (of prestige) are established in a society • Everyone understands both (generally) DIGLOSSIA WITHOUT BILINGUALISM: • In past or in less developed countries with great social divide • Each group doesn’t fully understand the other but have no need to BILINGUALISM WITHOUT DIGLOSSIA: • In societies with social unrest or change (e.g. immigrant influx in Western society during industrialization era) • Taught native language for work – this used at home and their native language bought to work •  ‘Pidgin’ versions of both languages; inevitable language shift NEITHER BILINGUALISM NOR DIGLOSSIA: • In small, isolated communities (but rare) with no social hierarchy or immigration • Still words people don’t recognize (e.g. words used by young people to old people). Conclusion In conclusion, diglossia is a situation where, in a given society, there are two languages or varieties of a language, one of high prestige (known as H), which is generally used by the government and in formal texts, and one of low prestige (known as L), which is usually the spoken vernacular tongue. H and L can be either close genetically-related language or two genetically unrelated (or at least historically distant) languages. It is important to note from the outset that diglossia is different from that bilingualism. The key difference is that in a bilingual situation certain individuals (communities, etc.) will use Language A, while other individuals (communities, etc.) will use Language B, but everyone will use the same language for all situations--writing, job interviews, dinner table chats, etc. References Hudson, A. (2002) Outline of a Theory of Diglossia in International Journal of the Sociology of Language – www.international .ucla.edu. Lubliner, C. (2002) Replection on Diglossia in International Journal of the Sociology of Language – www.international .ucla.edu.

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LANGUAGE AND POWER IN SOCIAL CLASS, POLITICS AND ADVERTISING

1. Rationale Language and Power is about how language works to maintain and change power relations in contemporary society, and how understanding these processes can enable people to resist and change them. Both of these terms are closely link to each others. The language used by some people can show the power of them and the person who has power will influence the society by his/her language. For example, the second precident of Indonesia Soeharto using “ken” on his language, he prefers to say “menekanken” instead of saying “menekankan”. People then follow his way of saying the syllable “ken” because Soeharto has a power. The power of Soeharto influence the society. 2. Discussion. Language and Power in relation to the Social Class The main topic that will be explained is the relation between language and power and the social class and the dimensions of the power of language. The social class is economic or cultural arrangements of groups in society. In the social sciences, social class is often discussed in terms of 'stratification’. Further, the most basic class distinction is between the powerful and the powerless. The more upper classes have the more power. Social classes with a great deal of power are usually viewed as "the elites" within their own societies. Cody (2002) distinguished social class by inequalities in such areas as power, authority, wealth, working and living conditions, life-styles, life-span, education, religion, and culture. The social class here is about the hierarchical arrangement of individuals of a culture that is divided into the division of powers within a society. According to Weber, social class can be divided into three classes, those are upper class, middle class, and lower class. The upper class is the group of people at the top of social hierarchy. The member of this class is commonly having a great power to control the society and also can influence the policy among the society. Having power means that they have access to power through the state, religious orders, etc. Middle class is the people in the middle of a societal hierarchy (falls between the upper and the middle class). The measurement of this class varies significantly between cultures. For example, in United States, a person whose primary income is employed in a blue collar job is considered as middle class. In United Kingdom, people having a good education, owning a family house, and holding a professional post are considered as middle class. Further, the lower class can roughly be considered as those employed in lower job (can be measured in skills, educations, and incomes). Often, the term is used to refer to the unemployment. This people in this class also can be considered as those who spend money primarily for sustenance rather than for lifestyle. In Bali society, the social class is appeared as a custom for the society. The social class in Bali is based on the theory of Varna which means people stratification based on their professions. The concept of Varna is expanded into the concept of Wangsa. The Wangsa in Bali is not about profession. Instead, it is just used as the “marks” of family heredity. Wangsa can be divided into four: Brahmana, Ksatria, Weisya and Sudra. In relation to power, social class among a population results different powers. It means that, every class in a society (upper, middle, and lower, or Wangsa in Bali) has its own degree of power. The upper class tends to have greater power compared to the lower one. It happens because the upper is hierarchically the highest “rank” in the society. The power is also related to the language use in the community. It is a tendency that people in “lower” class will use the more polite language if they speak to the people in “higher” class. It is done to show the respect to the person in “higher” class. An example can be taken from the use of language in Balinese community. As stated before, the Wangsa in Bali is taken as a custom. So that, the language used is also influenced. There is a custom that the people in Sudra, Wesia, and Ksatria will use the more polite language if they speak to the Brahmana. If, for example, a Sudra talk to the Brahmana, he has to use the Bahasa Alus Singgih (the most polite Balinese language) and it is culturally allowed that the Brahman replies it by using Bahasa Kepara (Language used in daily informal conversation). For example: There is a Sudra (Wayan Degeg who are younger than Pedanda) comes to Pedanda’s house asking a good day to build a house. Wayan Degeg : Om, Swastyastu. Ratu Pedanda, niki titiang tangkil wenten sane pacang tunasang titiang. Pedanda : Mai, mai malu negak. Uling dija ragana? apa ane lakar tunasang? Wayan Degeg : Titiang saking Banyupoh. Titiang jagi nunas galah becik santukan titiang jagi negakang kubu. Pedanda : O ne ada dewasa melah anggen negakang kubu … According to the example, it can be said that the language used by the Brahmana is allowed culturally. It is because the Brahmana (who is considered having the highest “rank” in Balinese culture) has the power to do so and he has a role and status as the pries, and also his age was older than the Sudra. It means that, the Brahmana has right to talk in Bahasa Kepara to Wayan Degeg. In contrast, the Sudra has the obligation to talk politely to the Brahmana since he has no power to talk using the “impolite” language. Interestingly, the power in Bali is not always affected by the level of Wangsa. It also appears with the level of intimacy, the age, relation, etc. for the example, there is a Ksatria (Agung, 29.) do a conversation with a Sudra (Kadek Che, 33.) they are close to each other, and they have known each other since they were teenager. Agung : Bli Dek, kengken kabare? Kadek Che : Nah amonean dogen Gung kanggoang, men Gung kengken, seger?mara ya inget mlali mai... Agung : hehehe, biasa Bli dadi nak sibuk hehee, seger Bli, ne mlali kejep dogen nak lakar ka Alasangker mli poh, kadonga ngelewatin singgah dadine. Kadek Che : o...men nyen to kajak? Mai kunden negak malu dini, pang sing ditu jangkak-jongkok. Agung : Pang ba Bli, kejep gen ba, kar ka Alasangker be jani, nyan dimulihne singgah bin. Kadek Che : nah, adeng-adeng gwen Gung... The common understanding about Wangsa and language use in Bali is that the Sudra will never use the Bahasa Kepara to talk to the Ksatria. However, in this conversation, Kadek Che used the Bahasa Kepara to Agung. From this example it can be said that, the power and the language used appears in the conversation is not only restricted by the social class of the participants. There are some other factors that affect the use of power and language in the conversation. The power and the language used is also appears in different conditions or context in which it can be related to Hymes theory that he refers it as S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G Models. (1) Setting and Scene: the physical circumstances of a speech act. Meanwhile, Scene is the "psychological setting" or "cultural definition" of a scene, like the range of formality and sense seriousness. (2) Participants: The participants are the audiences or those who involve in the speech situation. (3) Ends: It is the purposes, goals, and outcomes of the conversation. (4) Act Sequence: It is the order or plot of the event in which the conversation appears. (5) Key: Cues that establish the "tone, manner, or spirit" of the speech act. It can be establish through the intonation, some emphasizing of telling something, or the gesture and movement. (6) Instrumentalities: Forms and styles of speech. Using the many form dialect features or the use of standard grammatical form. (7) Norms: Social rules governing the event and the participants' actions and reaction. (8) Genre: The kind of speech act or event or the kind of story. In accordance to powers, the S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G model can be used to explain the appearance of power in language. (1) Setting and scene: The different setting of the speech can result the different power. For example, a teacher speaking in front of the class may have “power” since he is a teacher for his students. However, in the house he cannot use the power as the teacher for his children. (2) Participants: the teacher may speak to the students in high tone. However, if the teacher talk to the principle, it is impossible for him to use high tone since the principle has the higher power than him. (3) Ends: the purpose of why to use the language and how the power influences the language because of the purpose of using the language. (4) Act sequences: ones may remains silent in a discussion since he has no right to talk about the discussion. However, as the sequence runs and it turns into a discussion that he expert in, then the power can appear since he has right to do so. (5) Key: key is about the intonation, person who has power may talk in high intonation to his subordinate and his subordinate has no right to speak in high intonation. (6) Instrumentalities: people in the “lower” class tend to use the more polite form of language when talking to the “higher” one since he has no power that allows him to use the less polite one. (7) Norm: it is related to the culture of how the power can affect language. For example, the culture in Bali allows Pedanda to speak in Bahasa Kepara to speak to his fellows. (8) Genre: people will use his power if the genre of the conversation allows them use it in an appropriate way. Language and Power in relation to the politics Besides the social context, language and power also occupied in the politics that the command of language becomes a means of power: as political rhetoric and demagogy, as ideology and bedazzlement, as seduction through words, as “persuasion”. For instance, the first president of Indonesia, Soekarna, on his speech about attacking Malaysia ” Kalau kita lapar itu biasa Kalau kita malu itu juga biasa Namun kalau kita lapar atau malu itu karena Malaysia, kurang ajar! Kerahkan pasukan ke Kalimantan hajar cecunguk Malayan itu! Pukul dan sikat jangan sampai tanah dan udara kita diinjak-injak oleh Malaysian keparat itu Doakan aku, aku kan berangkat ke medan juang sebagai patriot Bangsa, sebagai martir Bangsa dan sebagai peluru Bangsa yang tak mau diinjak-injak harga dirinya. Serukan serukan keseluruh pelosok negeri bahwa kita akan bersatu untuk melawan kehinaan ini kita akan membalas perlakuan ini dan kita tunjukkan bahwa kita masih memiliki Gigi yang kuat dan kita juga masih memiliki martabat. Yoo...ayoo... kita... Ganjang... Ganjang... Malaysia Ganjang... Malaysia Bulatkan tekad Semangat kita badja Peluru kita banjak Njawa kita banjak Bila perlu satoe-satoe!” This power of language extends from large political contexts, from the manner of speaking and thus also of thinking that dictatorships and totalitarian orders force upon dominated people. Language and Power in relation to the advertising Not only in social context and politics, language and power has also a deal with advertising that language also affect to the small scenes of everyday life, to the arts of seduction of advertising, the sales tricks of telephone marketing, or the menacing undertones at the workplace or in the family. For example, “apapun makanannya, minumnya teh botol sosro” Sosro advertisement “Lead your Life" (TelkomSpeedy) “Impossible is Nothing" (Adidas) From these three examples it is very clear that language has power on seduction the reader about persuasion. Without a doubt, the power of language consists in the fact that it can be used for rhetorical persuasion. Every attempt to persuade others with and through language is always also an effort to make oneself understood. And regardless of how rhetorically skilled the speaker may be, in the end he inevitably places his words, as language, under discussion. This first interpretation of the “power of language” already shows two things. On the one hand, that language and speaking must be distinguished in the exercise of power. The possibilities of language from the way in which language is actually used in spoken words. On the other hand, the interpretation also gives a presentiment that the power which is exercised through language always already bears within itself the germ of its counter-power. For the language of political demagogues and tyrants can be seen through as language. And by means of language itself. So that language conveys the power of violence or domination and at the same time undermines it. For everyone can take possession of the power of language and in this way see through and unmask the power exercised through language. Seen clearly, the “power of language” is thus not the fraternisation of language with command and obedience; this uses language for goals other than those which are inherent in it. The genuine, inner power of language is rather to undermine this other kind of power. Since ursurpatious and violent rule as well as legitimate rule must ultimately rely on the power of language in order to be exercised, to command and to assert itself, precisely language is the vulnerable spot of the commanding power. For the concealed intentions of a command can be seen through. The command can be obeyed, but it can also be refused; above all, it can be understood and so interpreted or re-interpreted quite as those might like who are supposed to obey it, but who for their part possess the infinitely divisible and epidemically disseminating power of language. The Dimensions of the Power of Language As it is cited on http://www.goethe.de/lhr/prj/mac/msp/en1253450.htm about the dimensions of the power of language concern on some aspects; - The power of language shows itself not only, and not primarily, in the language of power, of overpowering and repression, but also in its emancipatory potential, in the opening of other and new possibilities of speaking, and so also of thinking and acting. All speech ineluctably refers to a possible contradiction, every “yes” to a possible “no”, every assertion to a possible doubt. A comparable dialectic may also be found where language serves not repression and compulsion, but rather founds, illuminates and corroborates comprehensive and cosmological meaning in aesthetically pleasing, well thought-out forms. This is done above all by mythic or ritualised speech, by means of which man envisages and satisfies himself of the existence of a transcendent and sacred order. Even when in this way a certain social or ruling order is sacralised, mythic and ritualised speech is not another, possibly especially massive, instance of overpowering through language. Man needs the foothold provided by order and social institutions which are established and sustained mainly by linguistic symbolisation. But precisely here the rendering into language has always opened the possibility of the variation and change of given interpretations, and to the extent that mythic grounds are themselves interrogated about their grounds. Sooner or later, the language of myth presses beyond itself to logos: that is, to word and reason, the language of reason, reasonable and accountable speech. - After a long and eventful history, the rule of logos, the reason seeking, reason and counter-reason Weighing Reason, reaches it fulfilment in modern science. This science now speaks with the highest, universally binding authority, world-wide and about everything in the world. Its language is the real lingua franca of the developing world society. Its authority is fundamentally egalitarian and democratic; for it and with respect to it, nothing counts but “the non-violent force of the better argument” (Jürgen Habermas). In fact, however, the language of the sciences is, at least to a good degree, comprehensible and accessible only to the relevant experts. For the bulk of people, on other hand, it is a secret language – also when it is not expressed mathematically but in a very reduced English. In this certainly lies considerable possibilities for the abuse of power, of which many representatives of science, often together with those who hold political or economic power, avail themselves. But the deeper problem consists in the fact that scientific language, as helpful and indispensable as it is for rationally revealing and taking hold of the world tends at the same time to an enormous narrowing of man’s perception of reality. Not only recently but as long as there has been science, people have observed and criticized the extent to which our experience of the world and of ourselves is stunted when it is restricted to what can be expressed in scientific language. - Ludwig Wittgenstein, to whom precisely this restriction seemed imperative, later set against it the insight into language as a “form of life”. A very similar insight, if a different philosophical goal, has its source in Martin Heidegger’s speaking of language as the “House of Being”, where the language here meant is the historically developed, living language in its great and wondrous particularity and variety in general, and the language of poetry, which draws on, extends and goes beyond the historical language, in particular. “Man dwells poetically” (Dichterisch wohnet der Mensch) says, or better hopes, Friedrich Hölderlin, and this sentence brings the power of language to expression in its most important and deepest, at any rate in its most beautiful and freest, sense. Those who speak the same language not only can make themselves understood to each other; the capacity of being able to make oneself understood also founds a feeling of belonging and belonging together. This identity-forming power of language is not a secondary effect through which individuals can form themselves into small or large social groups or with whose help the social cohesion of societies or state and supra-state unions can be fostered; it takes hold much earlier than these. In his process of growing up, in the formation of his person and personality, language is not an element that the individual acquires at a certain point, but rather the acquisition of language is precisely this process in which the individual constitutes himself, not only as individual but also as an independent subject. By means of language he attains to a consciousness of himself and his surroundings. He acquires competencies to act and to make himself understood; in a word, he not only learns to interpret his world, but he also receives his world through and as language. 3. Conclusion - Language and Power is about how language works to maintain and change power relations in contemporary society, and how understanding these processes can enable people to resist and change them - Social class can be divided into three classes; those are upper class, middle class, and lower class. - The language itself becomes a means of power: as political rhetoric and demagogy, as ideology and bedazzlement, as seduction through words, as “persuasion” - Language also affect to the small scenes of everyday life, to the arts of seduction and of advertising. - The dimensions of the power of language cover some important point, namely, first is the power of language shows itself not only, and not primarily, in the language of power, of overpowering and repression, but also in its emancipatory potential, in the opening of other and new possibilities of speaking, and so also of thinking and acting. Second, the language of the sciences is, at least to a good degree, comprehensible and accessible only to the relevant experts. And the last is those who speak the same language not only can make themselves understood to each other; the capacity of being able to make oneself understood also founds a feeling of belonging and belonging together. References Class.html. retrieved on Sunday, December 4, 2011. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Hymes http://www.goethe.de/lhr/prj/mac/msp/en1253450.htm Hymes, D., "The Ethnography of Speaking", pp. 13–53 in Gladwin, T. & Sturtevant, W.C. (eds), Anthropology and Human Behavior, The Anthropology Society of Washington, (Washington), 1962. Language in Culture and Society (1964) Social_classmmmm.htm. retrieved on Sunday, December 4, 2011.

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Politeness and Solidarity

1. The Definition of Politeness 

In our daily life, we have the awareness about which one is polite action and which one is not. Politeness, thus, is an observable and social phenomenon. Whenever we want anybody else to respect and being good to us, we have to show our politeness. In turn, he/she will respond you politely either. We often say “hello! ” to others.All we want to do is to show our good feelings, our friendliness, and our intention to maintain harmonious relationships with them. In general, we act politely in order to show our wishes to start a friendly relation with someone, or to maintain it if it is already existing, or to fix it if it is being threatened for some reasons. To maintain such smooth, harmonious interpersonal relationships expected by every human in every society, politeness serves as an appropriate means. There are ideas by expert about what politeness is. Watts (2003, p. 39) had proposed four definitions of politeness. They are as follows: 1. Politeness is the ideal union between the character of an individual and his external actions (e.g. the language which that individual uses). 2. Politeness is the ability to please others through one’s external actions (e.g. through one’s language usage). 3. Politeness is the natural attribute of a ‘good’ character. 4. Politeness is a socially acquired state of mind that is adjudged to have reached a state of being ‘polished’ and of thereby being in conformity with a set of socially accepted forms of behavior  Kasper (1990) as cited in Huang (2008) said that “communication is seen as a fundamentally dangerous and antagonistic endeavor”. Politeness is therefore defined by Kasper as a term to refer to the strategies available to interactants to defuse the danger and to minimalise the antagonism. Similarly, Brown and Levinson (1978) as cited in Huang (2008) view politeness as ‘a complex system for softening face-threatening acts’. 2. Tu and Vous Talking about politeness and solidarity, there are two forms of pronominal which indicate distinction between the uses of ‘familiar’ and ‘polite’ forms. Those forms are Tu (T) and Vous (V). According to Brown and Gilman (1960) as cited in Wardhaugh (2002), originally in French, Tu refers to ‘singular you’ while Vous refers to ‘plural you’. Historically, plural vous was used to refer to the emperor. At that time, there were two emperors who ruled eastern and western empire. Even though, administratively they were unified. Addressing one emperor means refer to both emperors. Besides, philosophically, the emperor was also said to be plural because the emperor was seen as the summation of his people and could speak as the people representative. Wardhaugh (2002) assumed that “the consequence of this usage was that by medieval times the upper classes apparently began to use V form with each other to show mutual respect and politeness” (p. 260). In further he said that the T which still exists was used by the lower classes in the following time. The lower class used mutual T while the upper classes used mutual V. When they talked to different classes, the upper classes used T and received V. This asymmetrical T/V usage therefore symbolizes a power relationship. Wardhaugh noticed that lately the use of symmetrical V is used not only among the upper class. The polite V-V usage as the reflection of politeness is used spread downward in the society except the lowest class. Therefore, it happens that V-V is used between wife and husband, parent and children, and lovers. When V-V usage reflects respect and politeness, the T-T usage was said to reflect solidarity and intimacy. Wardhaugh had said that “mutual T for solidarity gradually come to replace the mutual V of politeness, since solidarity is often more important than politeness in personal relationship”. Even that today we still see the use of asymmetrical T/V uses, but solidarity is called to replace power that the use of mutual T is found quite often in relationships which previously has asymmetrical uses. A book published in France entitled Savoir-vivre en France (Vigner, 1978 in Wardhaugh, 2002) gives advices to foreigners on the use of tu and vous. They are as follows: 1. Tu should be use between spouses, between brothers and sisters regardless of age, between parents and children, between close relatives, between young people living or working closely together, and between adults who have friendship of long standing, particularly adults of the same gender 2. Vous should be used between strangers, between those who have no ties of any kind, and between inferior and superior. 3. Address Terms Politeness and solidarity are manifested also from the terms used in addressing other. There are some terms used to name or address another such as by title (T), by first name (FN), by last name (LN), by nick name, by some combination of these. There are factors influencing someone choice to address another. The address process goes symmetrically and asymmetrically. Different society has different naming practice. One example which is called to be different from what we are likely familiar with is address terms used by Nuer, Sudanese people. Every Nuer has his/her own personal or birth name, a name given by their parents after the birth. The maternal grandparents also usually give second personal name. Consequently, the child’s paternal kin may address the child by one personal name while the child’s maternal kin by other. There are also special personal names for twins. In the village, males are addressed by their personal names during their boyhood. This name is shift as the boy grows up to be adult that less senior males will address the more senior males by Gwa which means ‘father’. This naming practice is different across culture. According to a study in 1961 done by Brown and Ford, it was reported: a. The asymmetric use of title, last name and first name (TLN/FN) indicated inequality in power b. Mutual TLN indicated inequality and unfamiliarity c. Mutual FN indicated equality and familiarity. d. The switch from mutual TLN to FN is also usually initiated by the more powerful member of the relationship. There are options of addressing other besides the name. They are as follows: a. Addressing by the title alone (T), e.g. Professor, Doctor b. Last name alone (LN), e.g. Smith c. Multiple naming, e.g. variation between Mr Smith and Fred Address by title alone is least intimate form of address because it designates the ranks of occupations such as Colonel, Doctor, or Waiter. They are devoid of ‘personal’ content. We can say then that Dr. Smith is more intimate than Doctor alone that the other person’s name is known and can be mentioned. 4. Politeness of Balinnese Society Through the choice on the use of T/V form as well as address terms, we can show our feelings toward the others, whether it is solidarity, power, distance, respect, intimacy and our awareness of social customs. Such awareness is also shown through the general politeness with which we use language. Politeness itself is socially prescribed. It does not means that we have to be polite in all occasion. The concept of politeness is closely related to the work of Goffman 1955, 1967 on ‘face’ In social interaction we present a face to other and to others’ faces. In interaction, we need to protect both our own face and the face of others to the extent that ever time we meet each other we play a mini drama. Brown and Levinson (1987) in Wardhaugh (2002, p.275) differentiated positive and negative face. Positive face is the desire to gain the approval of others, ‘the positive consistent self-image’ or ‘personality’ …claimed by Interactants. Negative face is the desire to be unimpeded by others in one’s actions, ‘the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, and rights to non-distraction … freedom of action and freedom from imposition. Positive face looks for solidarity, while negative face requires the need to act without giving offense. When we interact with other, we have such a choice whether to use positive politeness or the negative one. Positive politeness is called will lead to moves to achieves solidarity through offers of friendship, the use of compliments, and informal language use. On the other hand, negative politeness leads to deference, apologizing, indirectness, and formality in language use. The example of positive and negative politeness is the use of symmetric and asymmetric pronominal. The concept of ‘politeness’ in language can be seen in balinnese cultures as follows: a. Balinnese culture Geertz studied Balinnese and found out that when Balinnese wants to say something, he/she needs to decide an appropriate speech style: high, middle, and low. The speaker needs to consider social relationship between the speaker and the listener in terms of status and familiarity. Such decision is needed because many words have different variants according to the style. For example: the equivalent to the English word I is titiang in high style, tiang in middle style, and iyang/icang in low style. Geertz as cited in Wardhaugh (2002, p.276) added some interesting observation. He said that “as you move from low to high style, you speak more slowly and softly and more evenly in terms of rhythm and pitch, so that the highest levels when spoken correctly have kind of stately pomp which can make the simplest conversation seem like a greater ceremony. There are factors determining the selection of a particular level which Geertz proposed as follows: 1) Qualitative characteristics of the speaker such as: a. Age b. Sex c. Kinship relation d. Occupation e. Wealth f. Education g. Religious commitment h. Family background 2) More general factors such as: a. Social setting. One would be likely to use the higher level to the same individual at a wedding than in the street. b. The content of the conversation. In general, one uses lower levels when speaking commercial matters, higher ones if speaking of religious or aesthetic matters. c. The history of social interaction between the speakers. One will tend to speak rather high, if one speaks at all, with someone with whom one has quarreled. d. The presence of the third person. One tends to speak higher to the same individual if others are listening. Wardhaugh (2002, p.278) stated three principles that seem to operate. They are: 1. Highest style is use among the old aristocrats or by anyone at the highest levels of society who wants to give the appearance of elegance. 2. Middle style is used by town-dwellers who are not close friends, or by peasants addressing superiors. Village-dwellers would also use this level whit very high superior since they cannot be expected to have any knowledge on the highest style. 3. Low style is the style all children learn first regardless of social class origin, and everyone uses it on some occasion, even close acquaintances of the highest classes. Men and woman are also required to speak differently. Women are expected to be more talkative than man and to err on the side of being over-polite in their words choices. On the other hand, men are required to be extremely careful in manipulating the style of speech because nuanced speech is highly prized. As Bali has modernized, certain changes have occurred. Bahasa Indonesia had spread and dominated the speech on political live since they do not need to use the speak level. It can be inferred that the choices of Balinnese on their language are determined by the need to maintain the existence of social arrangement, not to fulfill the individual’s need to address his/her momentary wants. 5. Considerable Items Related to Politeness. To achieve the goal of politeness, we should consider it from the following aspects proposed by Watts (2003): 1) Considering the social background of the communicator. Generally, the more educated a man is, the more he tendsto show his politeness to other people. The more he knows about the suitable ways to show politeness, the better he usesthem to be polite to others. Besides, the personality of the communicator is also very important here. Good-temperedperson prefers to use “face-saving act” while bad-tempered person prefers “face-threatening act” when they comeacross the “face-losing condition”. 2) According to the communicative circumstances. Communication is a very complicated process. In formal occasions,people tend to use formal expressions to show politeness, especially between the new acquaintances. While in informal states,people tend to be casual to show intimacy even if it is in the very moment they meet. And that doesn’t meanimpoliteness. We can see it through the following example: A man came into a bar and said to the waiter: “Hi! Buddy! Gimme some Whisky, would ya?”Although they have never met before, the man used very casual phrases to enclose their relationship. This is a usual wayto show friendliness to strangers. 3) Considering the social distance or closeness. In situations of social distance or closeness, showing awareness for another person’s face when that other seemssocially distant is often described in terms of respect or deference. Showing the equivalent awareness when the other issocially close is often described in terms of friendliness or solidarity. Even though, there are exceptions. For example, people often use family names to call their close friends, and when these peoplespeak to each other, they will use direct offer or request. But sometimes they use very formal expressions in their speech.Look at the following example:eg.2. Husband to his wife: “ Would you be so kind as to hand the bread over to me?”Surely we know that the wife has just quarreled with the husband and the husband is trying to amuse her in a certainway. Besides all the aspects discussed above, there’s another important point to concern with that is the cultural differences. 4) Cultural Differences Different culture causes different views of values, which affects the criteria of politeness and leads to differences invarious aspects. a. Ways to greet each others and farewells The westerners often greet others with a cheerful “Hello!” or something like “How are you?” If they are talking with astranger, they tend to talk about the weather as a way of greeting. But to Chinese people, they like to ask “ Have youeaten?”,“where are you going ?” , “ What brings you here?” or “ What are you doing here?” All these would beconsidered as interferences to privacy for westerners. When parting, Chinese seldom say “goodbye” as farewells that would be too formal or somewhat distant. Before theyleave, Chinese guests like to say “I have to go now.” “I am going.” or “Stay where you are”, and the hosts are used tosay “Go slowly”, “Come again.” to see them off. While two friends departing after they meet on the road, one of themmay say “ I’ve got to leave.” and the other may say “ Let’ s chat next time”, “ Come to see me when you are free.” Or“I would visit you if I can.” As for westerners, they often say “Goodbye!”,“See you!” when they part. (Deng Yanchang and Liu Runqing 1989 in Leech, 2005) b. Ways to praise others Look at this dialogue below: (Seeing a beautiful curtain in an American family, the Chinese wants to praise the room settings) Chinese: “How beautiful the curtain is!” Hostess: “I made it on my own.” Chinese: “Really? I can’t believe it!” The Chinese used surprising tone to show he really liked the curtain, this strategy works well in China, but the hostessfelt insulted. We know the Americans are very confident about themselves. Imagine what they may feel when theirself-esteems are being hurt. The hostess thought the Chinese didn’t believe she was capable of doing it, and her abilitywas doubted. c. Ways to express thanks The ways to express thanks are different in China from western countries. Westerners prefer to convey their thanksdirectly while Chinese like to minimize themselves to achieve the same goal. See the following example: 1) When you praise them, “ How beautiful your dress is! Westerners: “Thanks a lot!” Chinese: “Really? It” s just an ordinary dress.” 2) When they appreciate your help, Westerners: “ You” re really a great help to me.” Or “I can” t imagines how I can manage it without you! Or “Thank you for enduring so much trouble I brought to you!” “I really appreciate your help!” … Chinese: “Sorry to have wasted your time.” Or “Sorry for having taken up your precious time.” Or “I” m not at ease for bringing your so much trouble.” The westerner is trying to maximize the communicator’s help to be polite while the Chinese humbles himself to showgratitude. So it happens when a foreigner praises a Chinese woman for her beautiful dress, if the Chinese woman uses aChinese way to show politeness, her answer might be considered as minimizing the westerner’ s ability toappreciate for he had shown great surprise over such an ordinary dress. 6. Politeness and Solidarity in EFL Teaching Different culture causes different views of values. It affects the criteria of politeness and leads to differences in various aspects.Since there are different views of criteria of politeness in different situation in different culture, it is necessary to serve the language learners the knowledge of different kind of politeness appropriate in certain culture. It enables the students see how people express their intention to build, maintain, or fix certain relationships. Serving the language learners with knowledge of the criteria of politeness which exists in English is more to be emphasized in English Foreign Language Teaching. English Foreign Language learners should have the knowledge of politeness in English itself since it would be different with those in another language. It is to say that certain language has its own politeness criteria. Therefore, students who are learning English whose aim is to communicating the language correctly and appropriately should learn the criteria of language use in their target language. CONCLUSION Politeness is very important principle in language use because it determines the relationship that is going to build up between the speaker and the hearer. Different societies may have different view about the way of being polite. In using French, we cannot avoid to use tu and vous distinction. In communicating in English, we must refer to others and address them on occasion. In speaking in Javanese and Japanese, we must observe the convention having to do with the correct choice of speech level and honorifics. Since there are different views of criteria of politeness in different situation in different culture, it is necessary to serve the language learners the knowledge of different kind of politeness appropriate in certain culture. Even though, serving the language learners with knowledge of the criteria of politeness which exists in English is more to be emphasized in English Foreign Language Teaching. REFERENCES Wardhaugh, Ronald. 2002. An introduction to sociolinguistics. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing. Richard J. Watts.2003. Politeness. New York: Cambridge University Press Yongliang Huang. 2008. Politeness Principle in Cross-Cultural Communication(Available in Journal on English Language Teaching, Vol.1 No.1. June 2008) Geoffrey Leech. 2005. Politeness: Is there an East-West Divide? ( Available in Journal of Foreign Languages,General Serial No.160. No.6, November 2005

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LANGUAGE MIXING AND CODE MIXING (BALINESE, INDONESIAN, AND ENGLISH) IMPLICATION FOR EFL TEACHING AND LEARNING

INTRODUCTION

In this globalization era, almost all of the learning institutions in Indonesia teach English as foreign language (EFL) to their students. TEFL is the teaching of English as a foreign language which can take place in any country, English-speaking or non-English speaking like in Indonesia. It is not surprising that EFL is also taught in the kindergarten students. People believed that English is a language with great reach and influence so it is taught all over the world under many different circumstances. The motivation behind the move towards teaching EFL is first and foremost to improve the local students’ English language competence as mastery in the language is an asset in seeking employment in the globalised economic world. In addition, the vast amount of information is currently available in English. Thus, it is hoped that the availability of English and more exposure to the language in the classroom can contribute to the students’ English language competence, which is the key to access information in a variety of fields and also to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge.

However, In Indonesia, teaching and learning EFL are not easy jobs for both teachers and students in non-English speaking country. Specifically in Bali, people use Balinese language as their first language or mother tongue and it uses actively in their daily communication with others, especially with their relatives. Indonesian becomes their second language in which it uses in both informal and formal situation such as: school, government offices, public places etc. English is rarely found in daily communication among Balinese so it is quite hard for Balinese to acquire English completely.

In fact, nowadays, there is a condition in which people commonly mix those three languages –Balinese, Indonesian, and English- in their communication. This condition of mixing three languages which is also known as code mixing is also occurred in teaching and learning process, especially in English subject. Code-mixing is the change of one language to another within the same utterance or in the same oral/written text. It is a common phenomenon in societies in which two or more languages are used. The advantages of using code mixing are also used in English instruction. English teacher will find that it is easier to transfer materials by mixing the languages since not all students are completely able to understand the explanation in English. Students will also find easier to understand the explanation if the language used by teacher is mixed with the languages they often used such as Balinese or Indonesian. However, using code mixing in teaching English is not only give advantages to the teaching and learning process but also some disadvantages. People find that mixing the languages can give some good and bad implications to the EFL teaching and learning. It means that the condition will give implications to the EFL teaching and learning for both the better and the worse.

This paper is aimed at examining the implications of language mixing and code mixing (especially Balinese, Indonesian, and English) for EFL teaching and learning. It will be started by giving the notion of code mixing, the application of code mixing in EFL teaching and learning, and the implications of it toward the EFL teaching and learning.

CONTENTS

A. The Notion of Code Mixing

Code-mixing are well-known traits in the speech pattern of the average bilingual in any human society the world over. Code here as defined by Ayeomoni (2006) will be taken as a verbal component that can be as small as a morpheme or as comprehensive and complex as the entire system of language. It has been variously termed “code alternation”, “language mixing” or “language alternation”. Several scholars have attempted to define code-mixing. Bokamba (1989), for instance, defines that code-mixing is the embedding of various linguistic units such as affixes (bound morphemes), words (unbound morphemes), phrases and clauses from a co-operative activity where the participants, in order to infer what is intended, must reconcile what they hear with what they understand.

This paper will use the definition of code mixing suggested by Bentahila and Davies. They defined code-mixing as random alternation of two languages within a sentence. It is often used interchangeably with another term, code switching. The term “code-mixing” refers to mixing of two or more languages within a sentence while the term “code-switching” refers to mixing of two or more languages at the clause level in a discourse in a fully grammatically way (Poplack, 1980). The basic difference between code-switching and code-mixing is the composition of the elements intermingled and the arrangement of such intermingling.

While linguists who are primarily interested in the structure or form of code-mixing may have relatively little interest to separate code-mixing from code-switching, some sociolinguists have gone to great lengths to differentiate the two phenomena. For these scholars, code-switching is associated with particular pragmatic effects, discourse functions, or associations with group identity. In this tradition, the terms code-mixing or language alternation are used to describe more stable situations in which multiple languages are used without such pragmatic effects.

Code-mixing involves a number of implications in EFL teaching and learning. As previous study stated that one of the implications is that when a vocabulary item is presented to students through code-mixing, they will be able to rely on their existing morphosyntactic knowledge to use the new vocabulary for other syntactic functions (Celik, 2003). The relevant literature suggests that, there are mixed feelings towards code-mixing. A number of positive viewers have pointed out several merits of code-mixing. One benefit of this method of vocabulary presentation, as Celik (2003) describes is time; that is, both preparation and implementation of this method require a minimal amount of time. Another benefit is that, this technique does not require additional materials. As Ying (2005) contends, those who look at code-mixing from the negative perspective, see it as a disease, something to be avoided. After all, this technique does involve a number of constraints. All EFL learners in a classroom must share the same L1.

B. The Application of Code Mixing in EFL Teaching and Learning

Learning English as a foreign language happens in some countries around the world. Indonesia is one country that use English lesson as one subject that taught in every school. Teaching foreign language in classroom commonly face a lot of troubles since that English language itself is foreign language for those children. For students in big city or centre of province, the use of English must be touching most aspect of their daily life. They may see advertisement, announcement, and public information in English. However, children who born and raised in rural area are rarely find those thinks written in English. This condition make the English language become a strange subject to be taught even in school when the teacher of English language may not be really fluent in using English itself.

Based on the fact above which is easily found in our daily life, teacher initiatively uses strategy to overcome this problem in their English classes. Code-mixing represents one of the strategies that EFL teachers often use to accommodate the students' level of English proficiency. Some researchers analyze the phenomenon of code-mixing by EFL teacher, especially the functions of code-mixing in English teaching classrooms nowadays. According to finding and analysis, code-switching and code-mixing can be a good device to underline the importance of a particular piece of information, whether it is a grammar role, a name or an order.

So it may be suggested that code-switching and code-mixing in language classroom is not always an obstacle in learning a language as what conventional view see it, but may be considered as a useful strategy in classroom interaction, if the purpose is to make meaning clear and to transfer the knowledge to students in an efficient way. In another word, the use of code-switching and code-mixing somehow builds a bridge from unknown to known and may be considered as an important element in language teaching when used efficiently. Meanwhile, the researcher suggested to pay-attention of using code-switching and code-mixing in excessive way because it could be result in negative influences.

Code- mixing for teaching strategy

The use of code-mixing as teaching language strategy is worldwide used by teacher especially in EFL classroom. It is because the use of code-mixing makes the students more comfort in learning English as a foreign language. When the teacher teaches the students with full English non-stop during the lesson, students will easily get bored since that the students do not understand or only understand few of the words used by the teacher. In order to make the students understand rapidly the meaning of a sentence or words, English teachers in Bali sometimes have to put one or two words in English sentence using Balinese or Bahasa. By this way, students will feel that English lesson is not a lesson that has to be afraid of, since mixing the languages is not a big problem for the teacher and it is not considered a big mistake for students. When students start to feel comfort and enjoy along the lesson, they will pay much more attention toward the lesson. Start from this condition students will love English and curious to learn more.

Code-mixing as teaching strategy may used to overcome some difficulties in teaching vocabulary and structure in EFL classes especially when the students’ difficulty is in understanding the teacher’s explanation toward the topics given. More explanation about the use of code-mixing in teaching vocabulary and structure, will be given as following

The use of code-mixing in teaching vocabulary

The use of code-mixing usually appears when teacher has to introduce new target vocabulary items. Code mixing involves the use of L1 or L2 words in foreign language utterances. \. Further, it is found that even the precise bilingual have to drawn on vocabulary from one language while speaking another. This may be taken to indicate that vocabulary is organized the way synonym and antonym is organized in one’s L1. The example of the use of code-mixing in learning vocabulary

1. First step: to get meaning of words and meaning of paragraph

For getting word meaning

“Table is meja” while the teacher point at the table

“Students look at to your book page 19, mengerti?”

“You are a smart student. Pintar reading and writing in English”

“Bupati is leader in regency. His name is Bapak Bagiada.

“In Sukawati, we can find so many togog”

“Anak luh nganggon skirt, anak muani nganggon short”

“Girl memakai ribbon on hair, she is beautiful.

In this examples teacher uses L1 word in purpose to make a student get the meaning for the next English word. We can see in the (2) example, the elementary student does not know about the meaning of ‘leader’. By putting word bupati and bapak, we can hope that they will understand that meaning of ‘leader’, since that they know Bapak Bagiada is the leader of Buleleng.

For getting paragraph meaning

“A lot of accident happens in road. Of course, there as some reasons for this, one of this may be that the law in our country is so lemah. However, another reason may be because the driver is punyah after drinking alcohol, and the bigger problem arise when the officer takut to report it to his boss”

“People can easily terpengaruh by other people. Since that in school we meet a lot of friends. We have to be selektif in choosing friend. School must be a good lingkungan for the students”

In this example we use code-mixing to make the student understand the whole meaning of the context that has been discussed. It is not important that they have to understand every single word in it. They only need to grab the meaning and understand it in a whole. Like the example (1), by looking at the words lemah, punyah, and takut while consider other words (law, officer, alcohol, etc) we can hope that they will get the meaning of the paragraph.

2. Second step: to discuss the topic

When they understand the topic given previously, for example, “Road Accident” topic, they will be able to discuss that topic in group. Along this process, teacher has to pay much more attention to listen their discussion in order to know how they are going to talk about it and how many target lexical items that they use. When this discussion happen and the student start questioning about what an English word for lemah, punyah and takut, or what the synonym for them, teacher then have to ask them to look at it on their dictionary. This condition will stimulate students to be curious and active in finding new vocabulary.

3. Third step: to write their own writing

After students get the meaning of paragraph and discuss it, they have to be able to write their own writing in a same topic with the topic that previously given. For example, “Road Accident”, let them read it silently. Then ask them to write their own paragraph just like the “Road Accident” paragraph. The aim of this activity is to make sure that the students really get the message and able to use the target lexical items in English even able to use the synonym of them.

By the explanation and example above, clearly that code-mixing is an effective strategy for teaching new vocabulary. Since that students enrich by a lot of vocabularies, they will able to develop their skill in writing, reading, listening and speaking. Since that code-mixing is available used in English class (as long as it is not too much) students will be braver to express their idea trough writing or speaking. They will understand that in some cases or in a certain occasion, they are allowed to mix their language into L1 and L2 languages as well as foreign language. However, code-mixing has to use wisely in order to avoid the redundant use of it. Teacher has to explain that the use of code-mixing is not totally wrong, but to be a fluent user of foreign language, they have to avoid the use of code-mixing unless they forget the meaning in English. Students in this case, have to know that the use of code-mixing in English lesson is not bad, but it is also not good if they use it too often.

C. The Implications of Code Mixing in EFL Teaching and Learning

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

A. Conclusions

From the discussion above, we can conclude that:

1. Code-mixing are well-known traits in the speech pattern of the average bilingual in any human society the world over. According to Bentahila and Davies (1983) code-mixing is the random alternation of two languages within a sentence.

2. Code mixing can be used as a strategy to teach English as Foreign Language (EFL) especially in teaching vocabulary to the students. The use of code-mixing makes the students more comfort in learning EFL. It can be taught through three steps, such as: get meaning of words and meaning of paragraph, discuss the topic, and write their own writing. It is believed that this strategy will give advantage to the students’ mastery of vocabulary.

3. Code-mixing involves a number of implications in EFL teaching and learning.

B. Suggestions

There are some suggestions that can be given for the reader while applying code mixing in teaching English to the students:

1. Make an agreement with your students about the use of code-mixing in their English class and by time you have a role to reduce that amount to few words only

2. Use code-mixing strategy in certain condition only. For example when you think that those L2 words are difficult to be understood by the students or the paragraph is too complex for the students

3. Code-mixing is used for instructional purposes, not for making a joke or making funny expression. Do not let the students to use code-mixing for joking in inappropriate way because it will reduce the value of L2 language

4. Tell the students that mixing their L1 and L2 language sometimes is allowed, but to use it too often is wrong because it will make the students lazy

References

Ariffin, K & Susanti. M. 2011. Code-switching and Code-mixing of English and Bahasa Malaysia in Content-Based Classrooms: Frequency and Attitudes. Malaysia. Linguistics Journal June 2011 Volume 5 issues 1. Retrieved (December 1, 2011) from http://www.Code-mixing malay.com/documents/biRouh_rep.pdf

Celik, M. Teaching Vocabulary Through Code-mixing. 2003. Turkey. ELT Journal Hacettepe University. Retrieved (December 1, 2011) from http://www.teaching vocabulary.com/documents/Celik_rep.pdf

Poplack, S., 1980. “Sometimes I’ll Start a Sentence in Spanish y terminó en español: Towards a Typology of Codeswitching”, Linguistics 18(7/8), pp. 581-618.

Wardhaugh, R. 1998. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Third Edition. USA. Blackweel Publishers. Ltd

Zarei, A & Tagipour. S. 2011. The effects of code-mixing, thematic clustering, and contextualization on L2 vocabulary recognition and production. Iran. Journal of Language and Culture. Retrieved (December 1, 2011) from http://www.academicjournals.org/JLC

http://arief.wordpress.com/2009/03/31/pengertian-code-mixing/

http://blog.timesunion.com/vinoteca/defining-codemixing/2721/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-mixing

http://home.comcast.net/~codemixingslp/implicational.1.htm

http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields-multi.cfm).

http://www.nethelp.no/cindy/define.html

http://www.slideshare.net/cmcgoun/codemixing-2913116

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