Part 2. Akhirnya Agus Pulang.!!

Belasan hari lamanya Agus dan saudaranya tak muncul batang hidung, akhirnya aku berpapasan dengan bapaknya Agus‘eh pak Made "kije Agus? (bahasa bali) Bapaknya menjawab liburan ke rumah neneknya (sentak aku berfikir gaya sekali agus pergi liburan kerumah neneknya di Karang Asem),,o ya liburan sekolah walaupun agus tak sekolah tapi ikut liburan juga MANTAP, sebab satu cita-cita bapaknya untuk Agus dia tak perlu sekolah tinggi-tinggi sebab kelak kalau besar Agus menjadi tukang gocek ayam,,hha,,”super sekali” (Mario teguh). Ternyata tadi pagi aku melihat ia sudah pulang liburan karena libur sekolah sudah usai (tak sekolah tapi liburan pula). Pantes saja pak made tidak kelihatan beberapa hari ternyata ia pergi menjemput Agus di karangasem. Mengapa agus yang aku cari padahal banyak teman seusianya disamping kontrakan, tetapi dialah bagi saya yang berbeda dari temannya yang lain, sebab selalu setiap siang bolong Agus mulai membangunkan seisi kontrakan dengan tendangan madunnya..(Tendagan madun,,darrrr) bola bertubrukan dengan tembok ,,(pasti ulahnya agus gerutuku) ternyata betul dia bermain dengan sapi ompong..sebutan ku untuk temannya Agus yang tak punya gigi, ya sama juga nakalnya tetapi agus lebih dari nakal dan kuat walaupun perawakan dia kecil tetapi kalau dua tiga kali jatuh agus tak akan menangis tetapi kalau temannya yang lain pasti nangis.

Nah,,,mulai sudah episodenya madun dikontrakan GECEK (Gerakan Cendikiawan) kataku karena Agus sudah pulang. Tetapi kami memiliki cara ampuh agar Agus berhenti main bola yaitu dikasi uang untuk beli permen atau disiapkan permen sebagai sogokan agar ia tak bermain bola, setelah itu dia pasti nurut apapun yang saya suruh, itulah agus, selalu mencari gara-gara, sehingga ketika berlibur kerumah kakeknya, kontrakan kami terasa nyaman, tetapi saya merasa ada yang berbeda dengan hari-hari biasanya. Ya itulah manusia kadang apa yang ia benci suatu saat bisa saja ia mencintainya, dan apa yang kita cintai suatu saat bisa saja kita benci…diatas segalanya janganlah terlalu untuk hal tersebut..sebab kita sering merindukan sesuatu ketika hal tersebut tidak ada..continued.

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Part 2 Sholat Teraweh di Kota Singa (a spiritual journey) the series; Puasa di Pulau Dewata,

Aku tidak mendengar suara adzan berkumandang seperti dikampungku lombok yang suara adzannya bersahutan, disini seperti berada dalam sebuah hutan belantara yang terdengar hanya bising burung berkicau, yang diganti oleh deru mobil. Anda harus menjadi seorang petapa yang memiliki daya nyali rasa agar anda waspada pada terkaman singa waktu, jika tidak semuanya akan kelewatan, Zuhur, Asar, apalagi magrib tentu akan lewat, sebab tidak signal yang akan mengisyaratkan hal tersebut.

Selesai berbuka puasa dengan makanan seadanya, ada sate kambing, opor telur ayam, dan campur gerupuk, ditemani es buah wah sempurna sekali, selesai makan langsung bergegas berangkat ke masjid sebab kalau terlambat ditinggalkan oleh pilot sholat (Imam Sholat). Ini malam pertama saya teraweh dengan imam sholat yang luar biasa lembutnya,(lama) tidak seperti dikampung saya dua puluh menit sudah selesai sholat teraweh, dengan system jet tempur “istilah kami dulu” tetapi jangan terlalu cepat dan lama juga ya sedang-sedang saja,,..(aku menggerutu, malam ini lama sekali terawehnya) bayang pandangku jauh kebelakang ketika masih kecil kami pindah-pindah setiap malam ke musholla yang berbeda-beda untuk sholat teraweh, tentu tempat pencarian terakhir adalah imam sholat yang paling cepat, melebihi jet tanpa awak amerika itu (ceritanya). Lucu memang tetapi itulah yang terjadi.

Kali ini, aku berada di kota singaraja, sebagai icon Bali kota pendidikan, yang memiliki jargon Singaraja Smile (bersama bupati Baru PAS). Teraweh di masjid Jami’ adalah adalah sebuah pilihan yang harus dan pengalaman pertama. Semua masyarakat muslim Singaraja membanjiri masjid, tetapi yang mengejutkan pada rakaat pertama masih penuh sampai saff paling belakang, pada rakaat ke 4 tinggal 50 % jamaah semuanya kabur,,ya aku positif thinking saja barangkali berbeda mazhab, yah biarkan saja atau semuanya kebelet pingin buang air besar. Positif thinking saja, masak sedang ibadah masih ada perasaan tidak baik yang menggoroti hati kita. Tetapi aku bersyukur bisa teraweh di negeri sendiri, dulu waktu di Bangkok dan Singapore kami tidak punya kesempatan teraweh di Masjid, walau kami pergi ke little India di komplek Mustafa supermarket yang buka 24 jam di Singapore yang memiliki masjid besar disampingnya tetapi tetap saja tidak bisa. Tetapi seperti kata penggelamang alias sang musafir, “bukan tempat yang menuntun kita menuju ketepian, tetapi rasa yang menaungi kita sebagai kompas sampai ke tujuan” ya,,memang tempat penting tetapi tidak harus,,yang penting kita taddabur raga dan sukma kita. Allamdullilah Ya Allah dimanapun aku berada Kau berikan kenikmatan Ibadah..continued...

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Agus Agus

Anak sekecil itu berkelahi dengan waktu

Demi satu impian yang kerab ganggu tidurmu

Anak sekecil itu tak sempat nikmati waktu

Dipaksa pecahkan karang lemah jarimu terkepal (Iwan Fals) 

Sungguh, jemari ini tak bisa menari dengan alpabeta, karena kebiasaannya telah ditinggalkan sudah sangat lama,,tetapi ada sesuatu yang membuatnya harus kembali menulis sebuah aksara yang tak bisa dibendung, ah..ini semua terjadi karena anak itu,,,!ya seorang anak yang setiap hari aku lihat berebut makanan dengan empat saudaranya, mereka masing-masing diberikan sama-sama dua suap nasi oleh ibunya sekedar untuk menganjal perut,,, ahhhh pantas saja, kemaren aku melihat anak yang paling kecil dari mereka mengais bekas makanan di tong sampah didepan tempat saya tinggal, aku sengaja saja tidak melihatnya ia menjilati bekas bungkus es,,perasaanku teriris,, sambil memaki-maki pada bapaknya dalam hati, Bapaknya namanya Made ia tak punya pekerjaan bukan hanya itu lebih parah lagi ia tak mau bekerja, ya,,cuman mengandalkan togelnya setiap satu bulan keluar 90 ribuan itupun kalau ia beruntung. sekarang ditambah lagi istrinya hamil lagi, jadi bisa dipastikan anaknya yang lima orang itu lahir setiap tahun, luar biasa itulah yang menjadi pekerjaannya yang terberat, saya menggurutu lagi..seinggat saya dulu pak Made biasa panggilan akrab kami pernah bekerja jadi tukang parkir ditempat adu ayam (gojekan) ya lumayan asap dapurnya bisa mengepul setiap hati, sehingga sampai-sampai anaknya yang bernama Agus disuruh bercita-cita menjadi pengocek ayam yang selalu menang..haa..sederhana sekali cita-cita bapak ini kepada anaknya..cerita-demi cerita dari tetangga pak made ini sebenarnya keluarnya orang besar-besar cuma ia tak mau bekerja ditempat keluarganya apalagi istrinya juga termasuk orang kaya di karang Asem, tetapi ia tak mau lebih mau ia ngekos bersama kelima anaknya semuanya tinggal diukuran kamar 3x4.

setiap hari aku mendegarnya mengkritik kebijakan negara ini, yang tak berpihak pada keluarha miskin,,katanya aku tidak pernah dapat BLSM selama minyak tanah dinaikkan oleh pemerintah, ia terus mengguruti akhirnya kembali pada ego aslinya, memang aku juga tidak mau dikasi sampah seperti itu..aneh memang diserba keterbatasannya ia masih ngengsi apalgi kerja semrautan..continued

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Berpuasa di Pulau Dewata (Sebuah Catatan)

Tidak ada satupun yang berubah, baik rasa maupun kebinggeran sehari-hari, tetap saja seperti biasa suara bising sepeda motor dan mobil menderu-deru, dan bau kemeyan didepan tempat tinggalku juga tak berubah, dan lagu-lagu keagamaan disenandungkan oleh para mangku pure. Aku seolah tak percaya apakah hari ini awal puasa atau tidak, lalu segera melihat kalender islam yang di bagikan oleh calon DPD Bali yang katanya satu-satunya wakil ummat Islam di Bali,,o ya ternyata benar besok berpuasa..dan tetangga disamping kontrakan juga mengucapkan selamat berpuasa, dan bertanya ”endak pulang Pak?,,aku jawab saja santai,,”endak, sudah biasa diluar berpuasa” walau berat sesunggunya berpuasa jauh dari keluarga, yah tetapi hal ini sering terjadi,, tahun kemaren aku berpuasa di negeri orang,, Thailand. disana cari makan yang halal susah, ya untung ada durian Bangkok yang selalu menjadi pengganjal perut walau pernah mabuk karena kebanyakan makan, sebelum dapat tempat makan ya…yang kami tidak tahu halal atau tidak, terpaksa harus makan walau hanya memesan ikan bakar…dan nasi doang..hal ini juga terjadi waktu aku di Singapore walau disana boleh dibilang lebih banyak restoran yang halal ketimbang di Bangkok, tetapi tetap saja kami kelaparan dulu sebelum sampai di restoran yang kami tuju.. waktu itu aku tinggal di kawasan Orchad pusat kota Singapore ternyata tetap saja yang paling enak dinegeri sendiri walau makan pelecing kangkung.. Yah,, sekarang kembali lagi berpuasa di pulau dewata, sudah dua tahun berturut-turut aku berpuasa di Bali, seperti biasa selalu jauh dari nuansa-nuansa bulan Ramadhan, tidak seperti di Lombok yang setiap merebot masjid, Mushalla menyampaikan pengumuman,,hallo-hallo Inak Amak semeton jari bareh Bian-bian taok te roah kembian jari ndak pade lupak jok masjid shalat terawih berjamaah, sak bini-bini jauk dulang endah” (hallo-hallo bapak/Ibu nanti sore kita akan roah kembian (bawa makanan ke Masjid untuk Ibu-Ibu dan makan bersama) dan jangan lupa mulai malam ini kita sholat teraweh berjamaah, dan ibu-ibu bawa dulang (semacam tempat makanan)” ya itulah kebinggeran yang selalu menjadi nuansa kami berpuasa di pulau lebih dari seribu Masjid Lombok. Malam hari anak-muda, tua laki-perempuan tadarrusan di masjid (membaca alquran bersama). Hal ini semakin mengingatkanku pada Lombok dan aku tidak dapatkan disini. Walau demikian, aku memiliki cara sendiri untuk merasakan itu, aku percaya bahwa ada yang lebih essensi dari semua yang berbau ceremonial, yaitu merubah maindset/cara berfikir, menuju Tadabbur Hati (merasakan sesuatu lebih tajam ketimbang kita mengucapkannya) ya tadabbur saja, toh pun sama dimana bumi kita pijak disana Tuhan selalu bersama kita.. Tadabbur harus dilakukan oleh semua Umat Islam untuk merasakan berpuasa itu dalam hati bukan hanya berhenti dari makan dan minum,,orang yang melakukan Tadabbur mereka akan bertannya,, Pernahkan aku merasakan kelaparan yang diderita oleh saudara-saudara saya yang memang tidak makan karena tidak ada makanan? Kita terus melakukan tadabbur pada diri kita, menajamkan mata bathin, memperhalus sukma yang setiap hari menerima keadaan yang berubah-rubah,,makanya puasa adalah lading menstabilkan semuanya… continued…

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Study Banding Kepala SMK Lombok Timur Ke Singapore & Kualaumpur

                                           

                                                 Putra Jaya (Pusat Pemerintahan Malaysia)

                                                                 Pose di Merlion

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ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING METHOD PROBLEM SOLVING

A. Introduction All teachers are likely to agree that they not only want their students to understand information that is presented to them but also want them to understand what they are doing when they are solving problems or conducting an experiment. In helping the students develop any real understanding of the subject taught, the teachers will have to teach them how to think, how to make decision, and how to learn from their experiences both in and out of school. To do this, the teachers need to select the teaching strategies carefully so that they suit both their students and the subject matter they are teaching. Jones & Idol (1990) stated that such strategies or approaches have in common an understanding that learners construct knowledge by making connections between their prior knowledge and new information, and analyze new learning activities to determine the most effective approach to achieve learning goals. Cognitive instruction seeks to facilitate learning by making students aware of their own mental processes and by providing direct instruction in thinking and learning strategies. Nevertheless, the teachers may not find it easy to decide what teaching strategy to use for a particular lesson because the number of factors that should be considered is quite large. Having content knowledge is simply not enough to enable the teachers to teach effectively. The teachers must know how to engage the students in the learning process and know how to organize information so that others can learn it. How students learn is as important as what students learn because their learning experiences directly influence their willingness to engage in future learning and their future learning strategies. As a result, the requirements of the learners, the learning context, and the content must guide the teachers` selection of teaching strategies (Killen: vii-x). In this paper, we, in group work, will present one of the very common teaching strategies, that is, problem solving. The discussion of this paper comprises introduction, theoretical framework of the strategy, the anticipation of the strategy, the strengths and weaknesses, and the implementation of problem solving as a teaching strategy in classroom activity. B. Theoretical Frameworks Many current views of problem solving, such as described in Keith Holyoak and Robert Morrison's Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning (2005) or Marsha Lovett's 2002 review of research on problem solving, have their roots in Gestalt theory or information processing theory. Gestalt Theory. The Gestalt theory of problem solving, described by Karl Duncker (1945) and Max Wertheimer (1959), holds that problem solving occurs with a flash of insight. Richard Mayer (1995) noted that insight occurs when a problem solver moves from a state of not knowing how to solve a problem to knowing how to solve a problem. During insight, problem solvers devise a way of representing the problem that enables solution. Gestalt psychologists offered several ways of conceptualizing what happens during insight: insight involves building a schema in which all the parts fit together, insight involves suddenly reorganizing the visual information so it fits together to solve the problem, insight involves restating a problem's givens or problem goal in a new way that makes the problem easier to solve, insight involves removing mental blocks, and insight involves finding a problem analog (i.e., a similar problem that the problem solver already knows how to solve). Gestalt theory informs educational programs aimed at teaching students how to represent problems. Information Processing Theory. The information processing theory of problem solving, as described by Allen Newell and Herbert Simon (1972), is based on a human computer metaphor in which problem solving involves carrying out a series of mental computations on mental representations. The key components in the theory are as follows: the idea that a problem can be represented as a problem space—a representation of the initial state, goal state, and all possible intervening states—and search heuristics—a strategy for moving through the problem space from one state of the problem to the next. The problem begins in the given state; the problem solver applies an operator that generates a new state, and so on until the goal state is reached. For example, a common search heuristic is means-ends analysis, in which the problem solver seeks to apply an operator that will satisfy the problem-solver's current goal; if there is a constraint that blocks the application of the operator, and then a goal is set to remove the constraint, and so on. Information processing theory informs educational programs aimed at teaching strategies for solving problems. 1. The Definition of Problem and Problem Solving A problem can be defined as any situation in which some information is known and other information is needed. The problem might be something that gives rise to doubt or uncertainty, or something that is hard to understand, or a difficult task or question, or inquiry that start from given condition to investigate facts or principles. Awhile, problem solving can be considered as the process of applying existing knowledge to a new or unfamiliar situation in order to gain new knowledge. According to Mayer and Wittrock, problem solving is “cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal when no solution method is obvious to the problem solver” (2006, p. 287). Thus problems solving is a form of inquiry learning. When used as a deliberate teaching strategy, problem solving can help students to release that the knowledge they have already gained can be applied to a new situations, and that this process can lead them to gain new knowledge. 2. The Distinction between Teaching Problem Solving and Problem Solving as a Teaching Strategy It is important to distinguish between teaching problem solving and using problem solving as a teaching strategy. Teaching problem solving is exactly that-teaching students how to solve problems. Meanwhile, problem solving as a teaching strategy is a technique in which problems are used deliberately as a means of helping students to understand or gain insight into the subject they are learning. So, in the first thing the emphasis is on solving problems and the latter the emphasis is on learning about the subject through solving problems. Quite clearly, the two concepts are closely related, and it is probably best to think of problem solving as a teaching strategy as being the broader concept that includes teaching problem solving. When problem solving is used as a teaching strategy, the emphasis should be on students learning about the subject, rather than simply learning to solve problems. The reason why this point is being stressed is that if we, teachers, simply teach students how to solve problems they may learn very little other than the sequence of steps they need to follow in order to solve a particular type of problem. There is considerable research evidence that students who are taught to solve problem with a “means-ends” approach can do so “with very little knowledge acquisition” (Owen&Sweller, !985, p.273). There is some evidence to suggest that problem solving depends very heavily on domain-specific knowledge. It means that the ability to solve problems in a particular area is so dependent on specific knowledge relevant to that area that one would expect minimal, if any, transfer of problem-solving ability from one area to another. (Schuell, 1990) In many classrooms, especially those of developing countries, the problem solving process may not be feasible because of factors beyond teachers’ control. However, this does not mean that learners in such countries should be disadvantaged from learning or acquiring skills that the problem-solving process offers. Learners can still attain such skills if teachers employ the problem-solving teaching approach. In this kind of teaching, teachers’ techniques, especially their questioning styles, can help learners develop critical and logical thinking, as well as the ability to generalize. Helping students develop problem solving skills is a frequently cited goal of science educators. The National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), in its 1980 position statement, advocated that science teachers help students learn and think logically, specifying that "...high school laboratory and field activities should emphasize not only the acquisition of knowledge, but also problem solving and decision making" (1985:48). Problem solving means many things to many people. For some, it includes an attitude or predisposition toward inquiry as well as the actual processes by which individuals attempt to gain knowledge. Usually, when teachers discuss problem solving on the part of pupils, they anticipate pupils will become involved with the thinking operations of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (considered as higher-level thinking skills). The American College Testing program has redesigned its college admissions test with a new emphasis on assessing higher-order thinking skills (EdLine,1989). 3. When Problem Solving as a Teaching Strategy Teaching and learning strategies are the purposeful actions and thoughts learners engage in for understanding, storing, and remembering new information and skills. Some learning strategies are observable, as in note-taking or writing a plan for problem solution. Many learning strategies, however, are non observable because they are purely mental processes. Examples of non-observable strategies are monitoring comprehension or activating prior knowledge. Since learning strategies can be used with any learning task, including mathematics and language tasks, they have considerable potential for enhancing the academic achievement of linguistic minority students. Three types of learning strategies are commonly discussed in the literature: metacognitive strategies, or the executive strategies that individuals use to plan for, monitor, or evaluate learning; cognitive strategies, the actual manipulation of learning materials by reorganization and grouping, elaboration or relating one new idea to another and relating new ideas to existing knowledge; and social-affective strategies, in which the learner calls on another person for assistance or works cooperatively with others on a common task (Pressley & Harris, 1990). An important reason for having students solve problems is to help them gain insight that will enable them to understand the subject matter better and to look at it from different perspectives and so problem solving is an ideal strategy to use in relation to group work. To achieve the benefits of group work, the teachers need to encourage students to discuss with one another what they understand the problem to be, how they feel about the problem, and the various steps in their attempts to solve the problem. In short, the most appropriate times for the teachers to use problem solving as a teaching strategy are as follows: • When the teachers want their students to gain a deep understanding of the subject matter, rather than just remembering bits of it. • When the teachers want to develop their students` thinking and reasoning skills-that is, their ability to analyze situations, to apply their existing knowledge to new situations etc. • When the teachers want to develop their students` problem solving skill- that is, their ability to assess and respond to new situations. • When the teachers want to challenge their students intellectually. • When the teachers want to encourage their students to take greater responsibility for their own learning. • When the teachers want students to understand the relationship between what they are studying and the real world (the relationship between theory and practice) • When the teachers want students` learning experiences to be varied and interesting. C. Anticipation of problem To use problem solving effectively as a teaching strategy you will need to develop certain teaching skills, just as the students will need to develop the thinking skills described previously. Fullerton (1992) suggests that you will also need to be able to engage in the following activities. 1. Formulating the problem You must help the students to examine the problem from a number of perspectives so that they will understand exactly what the problem is. 2. Analyzing the problem Before students try to solve a problem, you need to get them to break down the problem into its various components and assess the importance of each component. 3. Generating Ideas When you present students with open-ended problems (rather than problems that have a specific answer), one of your major tasks will be to help students generate ideas or data that can be used for solving the problem. To do this you might : • Help students to relate the problem situation to real situation • Help students to develop or explore analogies that will lead them to creative solutions for the problem. 4. Evaluating ideas When solving open-ended problems, students may have difficulty deciding on the relative merits of various ways of approaching the problem and/or the merits of various suggested solutions. You can help the students to select techniques for solving a problem, and to judge the merits of alternative solutions, by giving them specific criteria for making judgments. You could : • Have students list all the available alternative, examining the strengths and weaknesses of each, and then selecting the one that fulfils the problems objectives best. • Have students generate a list of ideas and evaluate each idea against explicit criteria, with all students having equal input into the selection of the final idea. In solving any problems, it helps to have a working procedure. We might want to consider this four-step procedure. Understand : before you can solve a problem you must first understand it. Read and re-read the problem carefully to find all the clues and determine what the question is asking you to find. What is the known ? What are the data ? What is the condition ? Plan : one you understand the question and the clues, it’s time to use your previous experience with similar problems to look for strategies and tools to answer the question. Do you know a related problem ? Try it : after deciding on a plan, you should try it and see what answer you come up with. Can you see clearly that the step is correct. Look back (reflect ) : once you tried it and found an answer. Check result, argument, result differently and a glance. When we use problem solving as the principal teaching strategy in a lesson, we are passing to students some of the responsibility for their own learning. If we have planned carefully, you will have created a situation in which the students can learn about the subject by solving the problem(s) that you have posed. If the students work on problems individually, the teacher should expect them to:  Satisfy the students that they know what the real problem is before they try to solve it  Ask question if they are not clear about any points  Develop a plan for solving the problem before they jump into calculations or experimentation or research  Keep a written record of how they attempted to solve the problem and the result they obtained  Make brief notes of what they learned by solving the problem If the students work in groups or pairs to solve problems, we should expect that they will do the things listed above and it addition:  Explain to one another what they understand about the problem and how it might be solved;  Co-operate with one another to complete the tasks and maximize their learning;  Explain their solutions to one another and show interest is one another’s explanations; and  Persist until they agree that they have solved the problem satisfactory. If the students work on the problem as a whole-class activity, you should expect that they will:  Explain what they understand by the problem and how they attempted to solve it.  Listen to and try to understand, the ideas and explanations of other students;  Pose questions and ask for clarifications;  Comment on the ideas and solution offered by other students; and  Help to draw conclusions from the problem-solving experience. D. Strengths and Weaknesses: 1. Strengths When used effectively, problem solving has a new number of advantages over direct instruction. In summary, these advantages are as follows:  Problem solving provides a challenge for students, and they can derive great satisfactions from discovering new knowledge for themselves.  Problem solving engages students actively in learning.  Problem solving helps students to develop new knowledge for themselves and feel responsible for their own learning.  Problem solving teach students that their solutions should be explainable and just justifiable.  Problem solving can show students that our subject is a way of thinking and doing things that should make sense to students, not just to the teacher or the textbook author.  Problem solving can be fun and rewarding learning experience.  Problem solving can develop students` critical thinking skills and their ability to adapt to new learning situations.  Problem solving can help to keep alive students` natural curiosity.  Problem solving encourages students to talk about the concepts they are trying to understand.  Problem solving develops students` ability to make informed judgements.  Problem solving provides students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge and to see that their knowledge has some real world applications.  Real-life problems can help students to integrate the knowledge they gain fro studying several different subjects.  Problem solving can help students to develop qualities such as resourcefulness, independence, patience and tenacity.  Problem solving can show students the value of exploring alternative approaches, in contrast to finding the answer as quickly as possible.  Appropriately challenging problems can engage students in learning long after the formal lesson is over.  Problem solving helps increase retention and provides a sound foundation from which students can transfer their knowledge to other situations.  Problem solving can create three conditions that assist in subsequent retrieval and appropriate use of new information: activation of prior knowledge, similarity between the contexts in which information is learned and later applied, and opportunity to elaborate on that information.  Problem solving can help students to develop the confidence to try things even when they think they might make a mistake, and to keep trying when they do make mistakes.  Problem solving can give the teachers a better understanding of the abilities and special talents of their students. 2. Weaknesses There are many occasions when we are teaching maybe more effective or efficient if we use techniques other than problem solving because it has the following limitation:  Unless the problems are motivating, students may see them simply as busywork.  Unless students are interested and believe that they can solve the problem, they may be reluctant to try  Appropriate problems take time to develop since each problem needs to be carefully structured to produce specific student learning outcomes.  Unless our students understand why they are attempting to solve a particular problem, they may not learn what we want them to learn. E. Implementation The implementation of problem solving strategy can be seen from using it through studying mathematics. At this studying, students should be able to solve problems encountered in the real world and to reason and talk about their solutions. In this approach to mathematics instruction, language plays a much larger role than has been the case in traditional computation-based programs. For example, students need good comprehension skills (both oral and reading) in order to understand a problem, and they also need good speaking skills in order to discuss the problem and explain their path to solution. Writing skills are also needed in mathematics if students are to write about their problem solutions (Dossey, 1989). The strategic approach generally recommended for mathematics problem solving is based on Polya’s model, which consists of understanding the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and looking back (Polya, 1957, 1973 in Chamot, A.U., & O'Malley, J.M. 1993). In addition to language skills, mathematics problem solving also requires a strategic approach to understanding and representing the problem, and making and carrying out a plan for its solution. The important of following the problem solving steps of the Polya model in sequence is a highly effective approach to solving word problems (Pressley & associates, 1990). Specific learning strategies appropriate for each step of the model include elaboration of prior knowledge, selective attention or focusing on important information, evaluating the plan, and representing the problem pictorially (Chamot & O’Malley, 1993). Cooperation, or solving problems in small groups, is another strategy that has a positive effect on problem solving and on helping students develop metacognitive awareness of their own mathematical thinking. Benefits of solving problems cooperatively include sharing strategies, communicating mathematically, and developing skills needed for independent learning. In addition to following specific problem solving steps, effective problem solvers maintain a reflective view of their own problem solving processes. They analyze related information, look for possible solutions, and check the accuracy of alternative solutions. Such metacognitive knowledge and executive control over problem solving provides the student with flexible and autonomous control over the learning process. In addition to metacognitive control, an effective problem solver will brainstorm a variety of alternative plans or solution strategies, activate what has already been learned, try the plan out with the current problem, and evaluate its application to the solution. The student’s evaluation of the plan must be performed with respect to the original problem representation rather than to the simple computational procedures used to find the answer (Noddings, Gilbert-MacMillan, &Leitz, 1983). The purpose of the representation step is to help students organize the data, define the problem and identify key issues. In this phase, we might ask students to:  frame the problem in their own words  define key terms and concepts  determine statements that accurately represent the givens of a problem  identify analogous problems  determine what information is needed to solve the problem In the solution phase, one develops and then implements a coherent plan for solving the problem. As we help students with this phase, we might ask them to:  identify the general model or procedure they have in mind for solving the problem  set sub-goals for solving the problem  identify necessary operations and steps  draw conclusions  carry out necessary operations In all cases, the more we get the students to articulate their own understandings of the problem and potential solutions, the more we can help them develop their expertise in approaching problems in our discipline. A few different ways we can introduce a problem to students include:  demonstrate a problem solution by systematically explaining each step and its rationale  ask the students how they would approach solving the problem  ask the students to help we solve the problem by posing questions at key points in the process  have the students work together in small groups (3 to 5 students) to solve the problem, and then have the solution presented to the rest of the class (either by us or by a student in the group) Students in problem-solving classes indicate that they appreciate:  clear step-by-step explanations  questions posed at key points in the solution  overviews and summaries of problem-solving approaches  opportunities to ask questions about problems and solutions  explicit links to similar problems  opportunities to interact with each other and with the instructor while working towards solving problems. To make the students to become better at problem solving, the teacher needs to give them appropriate practice by doing the following activities: a) Deciding what the teacher wants students to learn. b) Selecting or developing appropriate problems. c) Presenting the problems to students in a stimulating way so that they are encouraged to try to solve them. d) Monitoring the students` progress and encouraging them to think about their problem-solving processes. e) Helping students to understand how problem solving is helping them to learn about the subject they are studying. Teachers` Activities Developed during Problem Solving Lesson To use problem solving effectively as a teaching strategy the teacher will need to develop certain teaching skills by engaging in the following activities ( Killen, : a) Formulating the problem by highlighting the parameters of the problem and helping the students view the problem from new perspectives. b) Analyzing the problem by assisting students to identify the major elements in a problem and assisting students to identify how the components of a problem interact. c) Generating ideas by helping students to relate the problem situation to real situations with which they are familiar and helping students to develop or explore analogies that will lead them to creative solutions for the problem. d) Evaluating ideas by having students list all the available alternatives and having students generate a list of ideas and evaluate each idea against explicit criteria. F. Conclusion  A problem can be defined as any situation in which some information is known and other information is needed.  Problem solving can be considered as the process of applying existing knowledge to a new or unfamiliar situation in order to gain new knowledge.  Thus problems solving is a form of inquiry learning  Learners can still attain such skills if teachers employ the problem-solving teaching approach  In this kind of teaching, teachers’ techniques, especially their questioning styles, can help learners develop critical and logical thinking, as well as the ability to generalize.  When teachers discuss problem solving on the part of pupils, they anticipate pupils will become involved with the thinking operations of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation  The American College Testing program has redesigned its college admissions test with a new emphasis on assessing higher-order thinking skills (EdLine, 1989)  The purpose of the representation step is to help students organize the data, define the problem and identify key issues  In all cases, the more we get the students to articulate their own understandings of the problem and potential solutions, the more we can help them develop their expertise in approaching problems in our discipline.  When we use problem solving as the principle teaching strategy in a lesson, we are passing to students some of the responsibility for their own learning.  When used effectively, problem solving has a new number of advantages over direct instruction  Appropriate problems take time to develop since each problem needs to be carefully structured to produce specific student learning outcomes. References Chamot, A.U., & O'Malley, J.M. 1993. The CALLA handbook: How to implement the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Duncker, K. (1945). On problem solving. Psychological Monographs, 58(5), Whole No. 270. Jones, B.F., & Idol, L. 1990 Introduction. In B.F. Jones & L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction (pp. 1-13). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Holyoak,, K. J., & Morrison, R. G. (Eds.). (2005). The Cambridge handbook of thinking and reasoning. New York: Cambridge University Press. Mayer, R. E., & Wittrock, R. C. (2006). Problem solving. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology(2nd ed., pp. 287–304). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Noddings, N., Gilbert-MacMillan, K., & Leitz, 5. 1983, April. What do individuals gain in small group mathematical problem solving? Paper presented at the annual meetings of educational Research Association, Montreal. Pressley, M. & Associates. 1990. Cognitive strategy instruction that really improves children’s academic performance. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. APPENDIX A WORD PROBLEM PROCEDURE The CALLA Mathematics curriculum has been supplemented with a Word Problem Procedure (WPP) which Spanos (Arlington Public Schools,, 1991) developed for use in his high school CALLA math class. This procedure is in the form of a one-page worksheet and contains the following 11 steps: 1. Choose a partner or partners. Write your names above. 2. Choose a problem. Write the problem in the space below. 3. Select one student to read the problem aloud. Re-read the problem if necessary. Together, discuss the vocabulary in the problem and circle any words you don’t understand. Write the words below. 4. Find the meanings of the words by using a bilingual dictionary, asking your partner(s), or asking your teacher. 5. Write what the problem asks you to find below. 6. Write the operation(s) you need to solve the problem below: Add? Subtract? Multiply? Divide? 7. Solve the problem in the space below. 8. Check your answer. 9. Explain your answer to your partner(s). Write your explanation below. 10. Explain your answer to the class. 11. Write a similar problem on the back of this page. Steps 1-4 correspond to Step 1 of Polya’s method (Understanding the Problem), Steps 5-6 correspond to Step 2 of Polya’s method (Devising a Plan), Step 7 to Polyas Step 3 (Carrying out the Plan), and Steps 8-11 to Polyas Step 4 (Looking Back). The steps in the procedure are analyzed in the curriculum guide in terms of the learning strategies that are involved, e.g., Steps 1-6 are planning steps and therefore invite metacognitive strategies, while Steps 7 and 8 require students to manipulate the mathematical content and therefore involve cognitive strategies. The entire Word Problem Procedure calls on students to use social affective strategies by asking for clarification and working cooperatively on the problem solution. Finally, students use academic language related to mathematics as they read, discuss, write individual explanations of how the problem was solved, and explain to their partners and the class how they arrived at the answer. In this way, the WPP embodies the CALLA philosophy of integrating content, academic language, and learning strategies. APPENDIX B INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THINK-ALOUD AND RESTROSPECTIVE INTERVIEWS STUDENT INTERVIEW GUIDE Part I: Warm-Up - Background Information (2 minutes) 1. Introduce self and ask student’s name. 2. What is your native language? 3. What country are you from? 4. How long have you been in the U.S.? 5. Did you go to school in your country? What grade did you finish? 6. Explain purpose of interview. Part II: Think-Aloud Warm-up (3 minutes) 1. Here’s an easy problem. Can you tell me what you are thinking while you solve it? Student is given a sheet of paper with this problem: 53 -28 2. (If student needs more practice with thinking aloud). Do this problem, too: 15 x3 If student falls silent while working, say TELL ME WHAT YOU’RE THINKING. Part III: Word Problem Think-Aloud (5 minutes) 1. Start with Word Problem 1. If the student is completely unable to handle it, use Word Problem 2. Say, “Okay, why don’t we try this problem instead.” 2. Script: “I’d like you to try to solve this problem.” (Hand Word Problem 1 to student.) “Here’s a pencil and a calculator, if you want to use it. You can write or put anything on this paper to help you solve the problem. Why don’t you read the problem aloud first, and then talk aloud while you solve the problem.” Say TELL ME WHAT YOU’RE THINKING. WHAT STRATEGIES ARE YOU GOING TO USE? If student doesn’t understand, say JUST TELL ME WHAT YOU’RE THINKING. WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO DO? If, in spite of prompting, student does not want to talk while solving the problem, ask after he or she has completed the problem: “How did you get that answer? Can you tell me what you did?” Have the student go back through each step and describe what he or she did. WORD PROBLEM 1 Carlos and Gloria work at McDonald’s at 4238 Wilson Boulevard. Carlos works 8 hours per week and gets $4.50 per hour. Gloria works 6 hours per week and gets $6.15 per hour. Who works more? Who gets more money per week? How much more? WORD PROBLEM 2 (ALTERNATE) In 1989, there were 36 students in the HILT math class. In 1990, there were 27 students. Which year had more students? How many more students were there in that year? Part IV: Learning Strategy Discussion (5 minutes) Say WHAT STRATEGIES DID YOU USE? if student does not understand, ask WHAT DID YOU DO TO HELP YOU SOLVE THE PROBLEM? if student is not able to generate answers, ask the following questions in sequence: 1. “How did you feel about solving the problem?” (If necessary, ‘Were you nervous? Interested?) 2. “Have you solved other problems like this one?” (if yes, “Did you remember how you did another problem to help with this one?”) 3. “Did you understand the problem right away?” (If no, “What did you do about it?”) 4. “Did you make a plan of what to do?” (If yes, “Tell me about your plan.”) 5. “Did you look for important words to solve the problem?” (If yes, “What were they?”) 6. “Were there any words you didn’t understand?” (If yes, “What were they? Could you solve the problem anyway without those words?”) 7. “How did you decide which numbers to use?” 8. “Did you cross out, or not use, information that you didn’t need?” (If yes, “What was it? What didn’t you need?”) 9. “How did you decide which operation to use?” 10. “Did you make a picture in your head or draw a picture or table?” (If yes, “Can you show/tell me about it?”) 11. “Did you check your answer? (If yes, “How did you do that?”) THANK YOU FOR YOUR WORK. YOU DID A REALLY GOOD JOB. APPENDIX C CALLA TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE Teacher Name ____________________Date____________________ 1. Check which of the following math strands you have covered this year: _______ Whole Numbers _______ Fractions _______ Time & Money _______ Ratio & Percent _______ Geometry _______ Decimals _______ Graphs, Charts, Statistics, & _______ Probability _______ Other (Describe_______________________________ ) 2. Check the average amount of time spent on word problems: _____ once a week _____ 4-5 times a week _____ 2-3 times a week _____ part of every period 3. Do you think it is necessary to teach learning strategies directly (i.e., to name the strategy and tell why it is important)? __ Yes __ No Why or why not? _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 4. Which learning strategies do you teach directly (D) or indirectly (I)? __ D __ I Elaborating prior knowledge __ D __ I Cooperation __ D __ I Graphic Organizers __ D __ I Classifying/grouping __ D __ I Making inferences/predicting __ D __ I Summarizing __ D __ I Using images/visualizing 5. Do you teach problem-solving strategies? __ Yes __ No 6. If yes, check which strategies you use*: __ Finding needed information __ Finding extra information __ Cooperative learning __ Guessing & checking __ Choosing operations __ Making organized lists/tables __ Drawing pictures/diagrams __ Finding patterns __ Writing simple problems __ Solving simpler problems __ Using logical reasoning __ Working backward __ Writing number sentences 7. Additional comments _____________________________________ ________________________________________________________

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BILLINGUALISM AND POLYGLOSSIA

Before we discuss further definition of Polyglossia, we shall consider the related term in which has close relation to the topic will be discussed. We are going to start with the term Diglossia. 

 1. DIGLOSSIA

 1.1 What is diglossia? 

The French term diglossie was first coined (as a translation of Greek, ‘bilingualism’) by the Greek linguist, Ioannis Psycharis. Charles A. Ferguson in his article “Diglossia” in the journal Word (1959) intensively defines diglossia as follows: “DIGLOSSIA is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any section of the community for ordinary conversation (Ferguson, 1959 in Wardhaugh, 1986)” Ferguson’s definition considers diglossia as a kind of bilingualism in a given society in which one of the languages is “High” variety, i.e. has high prestige, and another of the languages is “Low” variety, i.e. has low prestige. “High” variety is usually the written language, whereas “Low” variety is the spoken language. In formal situations, “High” variety is used; in informal situations, “Low” variety is used (Wardhaugh, 1986). According to Ferguson (1959) in Hudson (2002), “High” variety and “Low” variety are always close genetically-related language. On the other hands, Fishman (1967) in Hudson (2002) introduces the notion that diglossia could be extended to situations found in many societies where forms of two genetically unrelated (or at least historically distant ) languages occupy the H and L niches, such that one of the languages (e.g. Latin in medieval Europe), is used for religious, educational, literacy and other such prestigious domains, while another language (in the case of medieval Europe, the vernacular languages of that era) is rarely used for such purposes, being only employed for more informal, primarily spoken domains (Hudson, 2002). Because of the different notions of diglossia proposed by Ferguson (1959) and Fishman (1967), studies on diglossia have differed with regards to the question of which cases should be considered to constitute diglossia and which should not (Myhill, 2009). According to the preference of the researcher, the reference of the term diglossia may be limited to cases in which H and L are considered to be versions of the same language and H is not the everyday language of anyone in the same country (e.g. Standard Arabic (H) vs. Colloquial Arabic (L) in e.g. Syria), or it may also be used to refer to cases in which H is spoken as the everyday language of some geographically or ethnically distinct group in the same country (e.g. Italian (H) vs. Sicilian (L) in Italy or Standard English (H) vs. Black English (L) in the United States), or it may even include cases in which H and L are different languages (e.g. Urdu (H) vs. Punjabi (L) in Pakistan) (Myhill, 2009). 1.2 Characteristic Features of Diglossia Research on diglossia has concentrated on a number of variables and important questions of the characteristic features of diglossia, such as function, prestige, literary heritage, acquisition, standardization, stability, grammar, lexicon, and phonology of H and L varieties (Schiffman, 2001). 1. Function The functional differentiation of discrepant varieties in a diglossia is fundamental, thus distinguishing it from bilingualism. H and L are used for different purposes, and native speakers of the community would find it odd if anyone used H in an L domain or L in an H domain. 2. Prestige In most diglossias examined, H was more highly valued (had greater prestige) than was L. The H variety is that of ‘great’ literature, canonical religious texts, ancient poetry, of public speaking, of pomp and circumstance. The L-variety is felt to be less worthy, corrupt, ‘broken’, vulgar, undignified, etc. 3. Literary Heritage In most diglossic languages, the literature is all in H-variety; no written uses of L exist, except for ‘dialect’ poetry, advertising, or ‘low’ restricted genres. In most diglossic languages, the H-variety is thought to be the language; the L-variety is sometimes denied to exist, or is claimed to be only spoken by lesser mortals (servants, women, children). In some traditions (e.g. Shakespeare’s plays), L-variety would be used to show certain characters as rustic, comical, uneducated, etc. 4. Acquisition L-variety is the variety learned first; it is the mother tongue, the language of the home. H-variety is acquired through schooling. Where linguists would therefore insist that the L-variety is primary, native scholars see only the H-variety as the language. 5. Standardization H is strictly standardized; grammars, dictionaries, canonical texts, etc exist for it, written by native grammarians. L is rarely standardized in the traditional sense, or if grammars exist, is written by outsiders. 6. Stability Diglossias are generally stable, persisting for centuries or even millennia. Occasionally L-varieties gain domains and displace the H-variety, but H only displaces L if H is the mother tongue of elite, usually in a neighboring polity. 7. Grammar The grammars of H are more complex than the grammars of L-variety. They have more complex tense systems, gender systems, agreement, and syntax than L-variety. 8. Lexicon Lexicon is often somewhat shared, but generally there is differentiation; H has vocabulary that L lacks, and vice-versa. 9. Phonology Two kinds of systems are discerned. One is where H and L share the same phonological elements, but H may have more complicated morphophonemics. Or, H is a special subset of the L-variety inventory. (But speakers often fail to keep the two systems separate.) A second type is one where H has contrasts that L lacks, systematically substituting some other phoneme for the lacking contrast; but L may ‘borrow’ elements as tatsamas, using the H-variety contrast in that particular item. 1.3 TYPES OF DIGLOSSIA There are some types of Diglossia. Joshua Fishman classifies it into two. They are Biglossia and Digraphia. Biglossia can be defined as Diglossia involving two completely separate languages, where the varieties in question are varieties of different languages. Another one is Digraphia. It refers to the use of more than one writing system for the same language (H is for written use, L is for conversational use). Digraphia can be synchronic, meaning that these writing systems are used at the same time for the same language, or diachronic, meaning that the writing system used has changed over time, one writing system succeeding another over time. The best example of synchronic Digraphia is Serbian. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet and an adapted Latin alphabet are both widely used in Serbia in a large variety of contexts and most Serbian speakers are able to read and write in both. Some authorities consider Japanese to be a case of synchronic Digraphia, as it has three different scripts. Other authorities disagree, however, pointing out that all three scripts are part of the same writing system, and have a defined role to play within that system. It is not always easily achieved writing an entire text in three different versions, one in each script. In Serbian this is always possible. An element of synchronic Digraphia is present in many languages not using the Latin script, in particular in text messages and when typing on a computer which does have the facility to represent the usual script for that language. In such cases, Latin script is often used, although systems of transcription are often not standardized. In Diachronic Digraphia, there are many examples where a language used to be written in a script that was replaced later. Examples are Romanian (which originally used Cyrillic then changed to Latin); Turkish (Arabic then Latin), and many languages of former Soviet Central Asia, which abandoned the Cyrillic script after the dissolution of the USSR. Pauwels classifies Diglossia into three; they are Interlingual diglossia, Intralingual diglossia, and Diglossia as a ‘continuum’. Interlingual diglossia is diglossia with two different languages while Intralingual diglossia is diglossia where both derived from same language. Diglossia as a ‘continuum’ is ranging from Rigid Diglossia (clearly defined codes/situations for use) to Fluid Diglossia (lots of overlapping of use). Fasold classifies Diglossia into three; they are Double-Nested Diglossia, Polyglossia, and Code-switching. In Double-Nested Diglossia, there are two Hs and one L (‘lower’ H acts as H and L). In other words, it is subdiglossic situations within major diglossic situations with distinctive difference in varieties of a language (or languages) and their functions. For example, a village situation in India, north of Delhi. The high variety is Hindi and the low variety is called (by Gumperz) Khalapur. Khalapur is spoken by all villagers and is always used in local interactions. Hindi is learned in school or by having lived in the cities. Better educated and socially prominent villagers speak Hindi in matters relating to commerce and politics (ie, outside village matters). Polyglossia is the coexistence of multiple languages in the same area. Polyglossia is also defined as the use of three or more varieties in a community with a function differentiation, a shared language value system and common norms. And Code Switching can be defined as a linguistics term denoting the concurrent use of more than one language, or language variety, in conversation (2 languages used in one situation/sentence). The term code-switching is used when examining how people speak in different situations. Code is thought of as a more neutral way of expressing dialect and there are generally thought to be two codes, a prestige code and an everyday code. The term diglossia is also used to describe a person’s ability to switch from one dialect or code to another. The subtle difference between code-switching and diglossia is that diglossia is thought to be a more intentional changing of dialect due to situation and code-switching is perceived as a more subconscious change. In a diglossic situation, some topics and situations are better suited to one language over another. Joshua Fishman proposes a domain-specific code-switching model (later refined by Blom and Gumperz) wherein bilingual speakers choose which code to speak depending on where they are and what they are discussing. For example, a child who is a bilingual Spanish-English speaker might speak Spanish at home and English in class, but Spanish at recess. 1.4 POLYGLOSSIA Polyglossia is defined as the use of three or more varieties in a community with a function differentiation, a shared language value system and common norms. Polyglossia is defined as the coexistence of multiple languages in the same area. (http://www.wordnik.com/words/polyglossia) Basically polyglossia situations involve two contrasting varieties (high and low) but in general it refers to communities that regularly use more than two languages. Polyglossia is a part of diglossia but in polyglossia it involves more languages used. 2. Bilingualism 2.1 What is bilingualism? The term bilingualism is defined as the ability to use and to speak two languages. Language cannot be divorced from the context in which it is used. It is not produced in a vacuum; it is enacted in changing dramas. Every kind of communication includes one speaker, one canal (the topic) and one listener. Functional bilingualism moves into language production across the encyclopedia of everyday contexts and events. It concerns when, where and with who people use these two languages. For instances: - A child who is beginning to talk, speaking English to one parent and Welsh to the other. - A Danish immigrant in New Zealand who has not had contact with Danish for the last 40 years. - A schoolchild from an Italian immigrant family in the USA who increasingly uses English both at home and outside but whose older relatives address him in Italian only. - A young graduate who has been studying French for eleven years. - A personal interpreter of an important public figure. - The Turkish wife of a Turkish immigrant in Germany who can converse orally in German but cannot read or write it. - A Japanese airline pilot who uses English for most of his professional communication. - A fervent Catalanist who uses Catalan at home and work, but is exposed to Spanish in the media etc and is fully conversant in both. 2.2 Describing Individual Bilingualism Individual Bilingualism can be described in terms of: 1. AGE: This can be classified into two; they are early bilingualism and late bilingualism. Late bilingualism is defined in contrast to early bilingualism, because late bilingualism is developed after the critical period for language learning. In such cases, it is thought that when people acquire their second language through immersion in a community that speaks it, implicit memory plays more of a role, whereas when they do so solely through formal classroom studies, explicit memory is more involved. 2. CONTEXT: This can be classified into two; they are natural/ascribed bilingualism and achieved/secondary bilingualism. 3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SIGN AND MEANING: This can be classified into three; they are coordinated bilingualism, subordinate bilingualism, and compound bilingualism. In coordinated bilingualism, children develop two parallel linguistic systems, so that for any one word, the child has two signifiers and two signifieds. One situation in which a child may develop coordinated bilingualism is when the two parents have different mother tongues and each parent speaks only his or her own mother tongue to the child. In response, the child constructs two separate linguistic systems and can handle each of them easily. Another such situation is when relatively young children who have already mastered their mother tongue are adopted by parents who speak a different language. Once again, the distinction between the two languages is crystal-clear for the child. A sub-group of the latter is the subordinate bilingual, which is typical of beginning second language learners. In compound bilingualism, children have only one signified for two signifiers and so cannot detect the conceptual differences between the two languages. Compound bilingualism is what occurs when both parents are bilingual and both parents speak to the child in both languages indiscriminately. The child will grow up to speak both languages effortlessly and without an accent, but will never master all the subtleties of either of them. In other words, the child will not really have a mother tongue. 4. ORDER AND CONSEQUENCE: This can be classified into three; they are incipient, ascendant bilingualism, and recessive bilingualism. The term passive or recessive bilinguals refer to bilinguals who are gradually losing competence in one language, usually because of disuse. As the term “recessive” seems to have negative connotations, we will use the term ‘passive bilinguals’ to describe this group of bilinguals. For example, a Dutch migrant in Australia may find himself isolated from the Dutch speaking community as his daily encounters are with English speaking Australians. Over time, his proficiency level in Dutch may deteriorate due to the long period of non-use. 5. COMPETENCE: This can be classified into two; they are maximalist/ minimalist views and semilingualism. The issue of bilinguals who appear to have limited level of proficiency in both first and second language has dominated some discussions on the issue of degree of bilingualism. The term semilingualism was first used by Hansegard (1968, cited in Baker 2006: 9) to refer to Finnish minority students in Sweden who lack proficiency in both their languages. Hansegard described semilingualism in terms of deficit in six language competences: - Size of vocabulary - Correctness of language - Unconscious processing of language (automatism) - Language creation (neologization) - Mastery of the functions of language (e.g. emotive, cognitive) - Meanings and imagery According to these parameters, a semilingual is both quantitatively and qualitatively deficient in comparison to monolinguals, and semilingualism has been blamed for the low academic achievement of minority children. Over the years, the term has accumulated pejorative connotations and researchers who invoked the use of this concept have been widely rebutted for ignoring the socio-political concerns implicit in the existence of semilinguals. Many authors argued that semilingualism is rooted in an environment which is not conducive to ongoing bilingualism, where the speakers were socially, politically and economically disadvantaged. Therefore, semilingualism is a situation which is engineered by the environment and not a consequence of bilingualism since a monolingual in the same environment would have faced the same degree of struggle in their academic endeavours. Researchers who highlight the correlation of semilingualism to poor academic achievement without carefully separating the symptoms from the cause only serve to perpetuate the negative stereotype of minority children. Equally critical is how this perception translates into educational policies and curriculum for minority children, though the term semilingualism is not fashionable anymore, the idea of low achieving bilinguals who are linguistically competent neither in the first language nor in the second language is still discussed, albeit under a different label. Cummins (1994) acknowledges that labeling someone as a ‘semilingual’ is highly negative and may be detrimental to children’s learning, and proposes an alternative label ‘limited bilingualism’ to describe the same condition. 6. USE/FUNCTION: reflect the view that the language is not an abstract entity, but a tool employed for taking part in acts of communication. It means the ability of a person to use two or more languages as a means of communication in most situations and to switch from one language to the other if necessary. 7. ATTITUDE: Consciousness of Bilingualism Attitudes are more accessible to observation in the context of societal bilingualism, as for example in the case of bilinguals among minority groups, where it is easier to notice that cultural, societal and motivational factors can influence the group’s maintenance or loss bilingualism. 2.3 Bilingual Patterns The ways in which peoples can become bilingual are: 1. Immigration. It involves leaving the country of origin in order to settle, once and for all, in a ‘host’ country 2. Migration. People moved across frontiers in search of work and better living condition 3. Close contact with other linguistics groups is contact between members of different language groups. It may be brought about by urbanization or by internal migration and bilingualism is likely to be found among children as well as adults 4. Schooling. Here, Education can play a very important role in making children bilingual. Education system may deliberately be geared towards fostering bilingualism 5. Growing up in a bilingual family. The children came from families where one parent spoke the language of the wider community and the other parent a ‘foreign language’. 2.4 Types of Bilinguals Skutnabb-Kangas (1984a) suggests a classification of the world’s bilinguals into four groups. She identifies the group as follows: 1. Elite bilinguals. These are peoples who have freely chosen to become so (example, because they want to work or study abroad), and the children who belong to families who change their country of residence relatively often or who are sent to be educated abroad. 2. Children from linguistic majority. These are children who learn another language (example, that a minority group ) at school, such as in immersion programmers or in foreign language classes 3. Children from bilingual families. These are children whose parents have different mother tongues. Bilingualism will be desirable because there are internal family pressures requiring the child to communicate in the language of parent (s). 4. Children from linguistics minorities. These children have parents who belong to a linguistic minority; they are under intense external pressure to learn language of the majority, particularly if the language of the minority is not officially recognized. 2.5 The Relationship between Bilingualism and Diglossia (Joshua Fishman) BILINGUALISM AND DIGLOSSIA: • Occurs when definite roles (of prestige) are established in a society • Everyone understands both (generally) DIGLOSSIA WITHOUT BILINGUALISM: • In past or in less developed countries with great social divide • Each group doesn’t fully understand the other but have no need to BILINGUALISM WITHOUT DIGLOSSIA: • In societies with social unrest or change (e.g. immigrant influx in Western society during industrialization era) • Taught native language for work – this used at home and their native language bought to work •  ‘Pidgin’ versions of both languages; inevitable language shift NEITHER BILINGUALISM NOR DIGLOSSIA: • In small, isolated communities (but rare) with no social hierarchy or immigration • Still words people don’t recognize (e.g. words used by young people to old people). Conclusion In conclusion, diglossia is a situation where, in a given society, there are two languages or varieties of a language, one of high prestige (known as H), which is generally used by the government and in formal texts, and one of low prestige (known as L), which is usually the spoken vernacular tongue. H and L can be either close genetically-related language or two genetically unrelated (or at least historically distant) languages. It is important to note from the outset that diglossia is different from that bilingualism. The key difference is that in a bilingual situation certain individuals (communities, etc.) will use Language A, while other individuals (communities, etc.) will use Language B, but everyone will use the same language for all situations--writing, job interviews, dinner table chats, etc. References Hudson, A. (2002) Outline of a Theory of Diglossia in International Journal of the Sociology of Language – www.international .ucla.edu. Lubliner, C. (2002) Replection on Diglossia in International Journal of the Sociology of Language – www.international .ucla.edu.

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